1. The Human Body: An Orientation1
The Human Body: An Orientation

2. The Human Body—An Orientation
Anatomy
Physiology
Study of how the body and its parts work or function
“Structure _______________ function.”

3. Anatomy—Levels of Study
Gross anatomy
Large structures
Easily observable

4. Mouth (oral cavity)
Parotid gland
Tongue
Sublingual gland
Salivary glands
Submandibular
gland
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Pancreas
(Spleen)
Liver
Gallbladder
colon
Transverse
Duodenum
Descending
colon
Small intestine
Jejunum
lleum
Ascending
colon
Large intestine
Cecum
Sigmoid colon
Rectum
Appendix
Anus
Anal canal
Figure 14.1

5. Anatomy—Levels of Study
Microscopic anatomy
Structures cannot be seen with the naked eye
Structures can only be viewed with a microscope

6. Gastric pits Gastric pit Gastric gland (c)
Surface
epithelium
Gastric pit
Pyloric
sphincter
Mucous
neck cells
Parietal cells
Gastric gland
Gastric
glands
Chief cells
(c)
Figure 14.4c

7. Pepsinogen Pepsin HCl Parietal cells Chief cells (d)
Enteroendocrine
cell
(d)
Figure 14.4d

8. 1.3: Levels of Organization
Subatomic Particles – electrons, protons, and neutrons
_____________ – hydrogen atom, lithium atom, etc.
__________ – water molecule, glucose molecule, etc.
______________ – muscle cell, nerve cell, etc.
________________ – epithelia, connective, muscle and nerve
_______________ – skin, femur, heart, kidney, etc.
________________ – skeletal system, digestive system, etc.
_________________– the human

9. Figure 1.1 Molecules Smooth muscle cell Cellular level
Cells are made up of molecules. 2
Atoms
Chemical level
Atoms combine to
form molecules. 1
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Blood
vessels
Tissue level
Tissues consist of similar types of cells. 3
Heart
Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Blood
vessel
(organ)
Organismal level
Human organisms are made up of many organ
systems. 6
Connective
tissue
Cardio–
vascular
system
Organ level
Organs are made up of different types of tissues. 4
Organ system level
Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely. 5
Figure 1.1

10. Figure 1.1, step 1

11. Figure 1.1, step 2

12. Figure 1.1, step 3

13. Figure 1.1, step 4

14. Figure 1.1, step 5

15. Figure 1.1, step 6

16. Can you name the organ systems? There are eleven (11).
Levels of Organization
Can you name the organ systems? There are eleven (11).
Can you name one function of each organ system?

17. Organ System Overview Forms the external body covering
Protects deeper tissue from injury
Helps regulate body temperature
Location of cutaneous nerve receptors

18. (a) Integumentary System
Skin
(a) Integumentary System
Forms the external body covering; protects deeper tissue from injury; synthesizes vitamin D; location of cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands.
Figure 1.2a

19. Organ System Overview
Skeletal

20. (b) Skeletal System Cartilages Joint Bones
Protects and supports body organs; provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement; blood cells are formed within bones; stores minerals.
Figure 1.2b

21. Organ System Overview
Muscular

22. (c) Muscular System Skeletal muscles
Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression; maintains posture; produces heat.
Figure 1.2c

23. Organ System Overview Fast-acting control system
Responds to internal and external change
Activates muscles and glands

24. (d) Nervous System Brain Sensory receptor Spinal cord Nerves
Fast-acting control system of the body; responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.
Figure 1.2d

25. Organ System Overview Secretes regulatory hormones Growth Reproduction
Metabolism

26. (e) Endocrine System Pineal gland Pituitary gland Thyroid gland
(parathyroid glands
on posterior aspect)
Thymus gland
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Testis (male)
Ovary (female)
(e) Endocrine System
Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use by body cells.
Figure 1.2e

27. Organ System Overview Cardiovascular
Transports materials in body via blood pumped by heart

28. (f) Cardiovascular System
Heart
Blood
vessels
(f) Cardiovascular System
Blood vessels transport blood,
which carries oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc.;
the heart pumps blood.
Figure 1.2f

29. Organ System Overview Returns fluids to blood vessels
Cleanses the blood

30. (g) Lymphatic System Thoracic duct Lymph nodes Lymphatic vessels
Picks up fluid leaked from blood
vessels and returns it to blood;
disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream; houses white blood cells involved in immunity.
Figure 1.2g

31. Organ System Overview
Respiratory

32. (h) Respiratory System
Nasal
cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchus
Left lung
(h) Respiratory System
Keeps blood constantly supplied
with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide; the gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.
Figure 1.2h

33. Organ System Overview Breaks down food
Allows for nutrient absorption into blood
Eliminates indigestible material as feces

34. (i) Digestive System Oral cavity Esophagus Stomach Small intestine
Large
intestine
Rectum
Anus
(i) Digestive System
Breaks food down into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells; indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
Figure 1.2i

35. Organ System Overview
Urinary
Maintains acid-base balance

36. (j) Urinary System Kidney Ureter Urinary bladder Urethra
Eliminates nitrogen-containing wastes from the body; regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood.
Figure 1.2j

37. Organ System Overview Reproductive Produces offspring
Testes produce sperm and male hormone
Ovaries produce eggs and female hormones

38. (k) Male Reproductive System (l) Female Reproductive System
Mammary
glands
(in breasts)
Prostate
gland
Seminal
vesicles
Uterine
tube
Ovary
Uterus
Vas
deferens
Penis
Testis
Vagina
Scrotum
(k) Male Reproductive System (l) Female Reproductive System
Overall function of the reproductive system is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone; ducts and glands aid in delivery of viable sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones; remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breast produce milk to nourish the newborn.
Figure 1.2k–l

39. 1.4: Characteristics of Life (10)
_____________ – change in position; motion
________________ – reaction to a change
__________ – increase in body size; no change in shape
______________ – production of new organisms and new cells
_______________– obtaining oxygen; removing carbon dioxide; releasing energy from foods

40. Characteristics of Life Continued
______________ – breakdown of food substances into simpler forms
_______________ – passage of substances through membranes and into body fluids
_______________ – movement of substances in body fluids
_________________ – changing of absorbed substances into chemically different forms
______________ – removal of wastes produced by metabolic reactions

41. 1.5: Maintenance of Life
Life depends on five (5) environmental factors:

42. Survival Needs Nutrients Chemicals for energy and cell building
Includes
Oxygen
Required for chemical reactions

43. Survival Needs Water Provides for metabolic reaction
Stable body temperature
37°C (98°F)
Must be appropriate for gas exchange

44. Homeostasis Homeostasis— A dynamic state of equilibrium
Necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain life
Homeostatic imbalance
A disturbance in homeostasis resulting in disease

45. VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center. 3
Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to effector. 4
Control
Center
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
Receptor
Effector
Receptor detects change. 2
Response
of effector feeds
back to reduce
the effect of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostatic level. 5
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
IMBALANCE 1
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
IMBALANCE
Figure 1.4

46. VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
IMBALANCE 1
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
IMBALANCE
Figure 1.4, step 1

47. VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
Receptor
Receptor detects change. 2
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
IMBALANCE 1
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
IMBALANCE
Figure 1.4, step 2

48. VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center. 3
Control
Center
Afferent
pathway
Receptor
Receptor detects change. 2
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
IMBALANCE 1
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
IMBALANCE
Figure 1.4, step 3

49. VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center. 3
Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to effector. 4
Control
Center
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
Receptor
Effector
Receptor detects change. 2
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
IMBALANCE 1
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
IMBALANCE
Figure 1.4, step 4

50. VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center. 3
Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to effector. 4
Control
Center
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
Receptor
Effector
Receptor detects change. 2
Response
of effector feeds
back to reduce
the effect of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostatic level. 5
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
IMBALANCE 1
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
IMBALANCE
Figure 1.4, step 5

51. Maintaining Homeostasis
The body communicates through neural and hormonal control systems
Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli)

52. Maintaining Homeostasis
Control center
Determines set point
Determines appropriate response
Provides a means for response to the stimulus

53. signals effector organs.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fig. 1.8a
Control center
The hypothalamus
detects the deviation
from the set point and
signals effector organs.
Receptors
Thermoreceptors
send signals to the
control center.
Effectors
Skin blood vessels
dilate and sweat glands
secrete.
Stimulus
Body temperature
rises above normal.
Response
Body heat is lost to
surroundings, temperature
drops toward normal.
too high
Normal body
Temperature
37°C (98.6°F)

54. Fig. 1.8b Normal body temperature 37°C (98.6°F) too low Stimulus
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fig. 1.8b
Normal body
temperature
37°C (98.6°F)
too low
Stimulus
Body temperature
drops below normal.
Response
Body heat is conserved,
temperature rises toward normal.
Receptors
Thermoreceptors
send signals to the
control center.
Effectors
Skin blood
vessels constrict
and sweat glands
remain inactive.
Effectors
Muscle
Activity
Generates
body heat.
Control center
The hypothalamus
detects the deviation
from the set point and
signals effector organs.
If body temperature
continues to drop,
control center signals
muscles to contract
involuntarily.

55. Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
Negative feedback mechanisms
Positive feedback mechanisms

56. Feedback Mechanisms Negative feedback
Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms
Shuts off the original stimulus, or reduces its intensity
Works like a household thermostat

57. Feedback Mechanisms Positive feedback
Increases the original stimulus to push the variable farther
In the body this only occurs in blood clotting and during the birth of a baby

58. The Language of Anatomy
Special terminology is used to prevent misunderstanding
Exact terms are used for

59. Regional Terms
Anterior body landmarks

60. Figure 1.5a Cephalic Frontal Orbital Upper limb Nasal Acromial Buccal
Deltoid
Oral
Brachial (arm)
Mental
Antecubital
Cervical
Thoracic
Antebrachial
Sternal
Axillary
(forearm)
Carpal (wrist)
Abdominal
Umbilical
Pelvic
Manus (hand)
Inguinal
(groin)
Digital
Lower limb
Coxal (hip)
Pubic (genital)
Femoral (thigh)
Patellar
Crural (leg)
KEY:
Fibular
Thorax
Pedal (foot)
Tarsal (ankle)
Abdomen
Back (Dorsum)
Digital
(a) Anterior/Ventral
Figure 1.5a

61. Regional Terms
Posterior body landmarks

62. Figure 1.5b Cephalic Occipital (back Upper limb of head) Acromial
Cervical
Brachial (arm)
Olecranal
Back (dorsal)
Antebrachial
Scapular
(forearm)
Vertebral
Lumbar
Manus (hand)
Sacral
Digital
Gluteal
Femoral (thigh)
Popliteal
Sural (calf)
Fibular
KEY:
Thorax
Pedal (foot)
Abdomen
Calcaneal
Back (Dorsum)
Plantar
(b) Posterior/Dorsal
Figure 1.5b

63. Directional Terms
(cranial or cephalad): toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above
(caudal): away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below

64. Table 1.1

65. Directional Terms
Ventral ( ): toward or at the front of the body; in front of
Dorsal ( ): toward or at the backside of the body; behind

66. Table 1.1

67. Directional Terms
Medial: toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of
Lateral: away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of
Intermediate: between a more medial and a more lateral structure

68. Table 1.1

69. Directional Terms
Proximal: close to the origin of the body part or point of attachment to a limb to the body trunk
Distal: farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

70. Table 1.1

71. Directional Terms Superficial: toward or at the body surface
Deep: away from the body surface; more internal

72. Table 1.1

73. Body Planes and Sections
A sagittal section divides the body (or organ) into
A median, or midsagittal, section divides the body (or organ) into __________ left and right parts.
A frontal, or coronal, section divides the body (or organ) into
A , or cross, section divides the body (or organ) into superior and inferior parts.

74. (a) Median (midsagittal) (b) Frontal (coronal) plane
(c) Transverse plane
Vertebral
column
Right
lung
Left
lung
Spinal
cord
Heart
Liver
Aorta
Spleen
Rectum
Intestines
Liver
Stomach
Spleen
Subcutaneous
fat layer
Stomach
Figure 1.6

75. Body Cavities Dorsal body cavity
Cranial cavity houses the ____________
Spinal cavity houses the _______________
Ventral body cavity
_____________ cavity houses heart, lungs, and others
___________________ cavity houses digestive system and most urinary system organs

76. Cranial
cavity
Thoracic
cavity
Diaphragm
Abdominal
cavity
Spinal
cavity
Abdominopelvic
cavity
Pelvic
cavity
KEY:
Dorsal body cavity
Ventral body cavity
Figure 1.7

77. Cranial cavity Frontal sinuses Sphenoidal sinus Orbital cavities
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Fig. 1.10
Cranial cavity
Frontal sinuses
Sphenoidal sinus
Orbital cavities
Middle ear cavity
Nasal cavity
Oral cavity

78. Right upper quadrant (RUQ) Left upper quadrant (LUQ) Right lower
(RLQ)
Left lower
quadrant
(LLQ)
Figure 1.8

79. (a) Nine regions delineated by four planes
Diaphragm
Liver
Stomach
Right
hypo-
chondriac
region
Left
hypo-
chondriac
region
Gallbladder
Transverse
colon of large
intestine
Epigastric
region
Ascending
colon of large
intestine
Descending
colon of large
intestine
Right
lumbar
region
Left
lumbar
region
Umbilical
region
Small intestine
Cecum
Initial part of
sigmoid colon
Right iliac
(inguinal)
region
Hypogastric
(pubic)
region
Left iliac
(inguinal)
region
Appendix
Urinary
bladder
(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes
(b) Anterior view of the nine regions
showing the superficial organs
Figure 1.9a-b

80. 1.7: Lifespan Changes
Aging occurs from the microscopic level to the whole-body level.
Can you think of some examples?

81. 1.8: Anatomical Terminology
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________________ _____________ – standing erect, facing forward, upper limbs at the sides, palms facing forward and thumbs out
Integumentary system

82. Anatomical Terminology: Orientation and Directional Terms
______________________________________________
(based on anatomical position):
Superior versus Inferior
Anterior versus Posterior
Medial versus Lateral
Ipsi-lateral versus Contra-lateral
Proximal versus Distal (only in the extremities)
Superficial versus Deep
Internal versus External

83. Fig. 1.20a Midline Right Left Superior Proximal Medial Lateral Distal
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Midline
Fig. 1.20a
Right
Left
Superior
Proximal
Medial
Lateral
Distal
Proximal
Inferior
Distal

84. Fig. 1.20b Anterior ( V entral) Posterior (Dorsal)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fig. 1.20b
Anterior ( V
entral)
Posterior
(Dorsal)

85. Fig. 1.20 Midline Right Left Superior Proximal Medial Lateral Anterior
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Midline
Fig. 1.20
Right
Left
Superior
Proximal
Medial
Lateral
Anterior
Posterior
(Ventral)
(Dorsal)
Distal
Proximal
Inferior
Distal

86. Important Points in Chapter 1: Outcomes to be Assessed
1.2: Anatomy and Physiology
Define anatomy and physiology and explain how they are related.
1.3: Levels of Organization
List the levels of organization in the human body and the characteristics of each.
1.4: Characteristics of Life
List and describe the major characteristics of life.
Define and give examples of metabolism.

87. Important Points in Chapter 1: Outcomes to be Assessed Continued
1.5: Maintenance of Life
List and describe the major requirements of organisms.
Define homeostasis and explain its importance to survival.
Describe the parts of a homeostatic mechanism and explain how they function together.
1.6: Organization of the Human Body
Identify the locations of the major body cavities.
List the organs located in each major body cavity.
Name and identify the locations of the membranes associated with the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

88. Important Points in Chapter 1: Outcomes to be Assessed Continued
Name the major organ systems and list the organs associated with each.
Describe the general function of each organ system.
1.7: Lifespan Changes
Define aging.
Identify the levels of organization in the body at which aging occurs.
1.8: Anatomical Terminology
Properly use the terms that describe relative positions, body sections, and body regions. (To be assessed in Lab, only)