Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Chapter 5 The Body as a Whole In Chapter 5, you will learn the reference planes, body cavities, and regions. You will learn about blood and other body fluids, and about immunity. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Learning Objectives Recognize the relationship of cells, tissues, and organs, and list the major body systems. List four types of tissue and recognize terms for their abnormal development. Recognize the directional terms and planes of the body, match them with their descriptions, and write their combining forms. Identify the body cavities, the body regions, and the four abdominal quadrants. Recognize the terms for diagnostic procedures and disorders presented in Chapter 5. After completing this chapter, you will be able to: Recognize the relationship of cells, tissues, and organs, and list the major body systems. List four types of tissue and recognize terms for their abnormal development. Recognize the directional terms and planes of the body, match them with their descriptions, and write their combining forms. Identify the body cavities, the body regions, and the four abdominal quadrants. Recognize the terms for diagnostic procedures and disorders presented in Chapter 5. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 2 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Learning Objectives, cont.
Recognize the meanings of Chapter 5 word parts and use them to build and analyze medical terms. Write terms pertaining to body fluids and blood and their disorders, as well as associated terms. Write terms about body defenses, immunity, and bioterrorism when given their definitions or match them with their meanings. Spell medical terms correctly. After completing this chapter, you will also be able to: Recognize the meanings of Chapter 5 word parts and use them to build and analyze medical terms. Write terms pertaining to body fluids and blood and their disorders, as well as associated terms. Write terms about body defenses, immunity, and bioterrorism when given their definitions or match them with their meanings. Spell medical terms you learned in Chapter 5 correctly. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 3 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

The cell is the fundamental unit of life. Tissues are made up of cells, and organs are composed of tissues. Body systems consist of several organs working together to accomplish functions. What are the main body systems? [muscular & skeletal, circulatory, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive, integumentary, nervous, endocrine] Homeostasis is the balance of the body’s internal environment. (home/o, sameness, + -stasis, controlling) Fig. 5-1 Organization scheme of the body. All of its parts, from tiny atoms to visible structures, work together to make a functioning whole. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 4 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Body Systems muscular skeletal cardiovascular lymphatic respiratory digestive Each body system has specific functions, which will be discussed more fully in later chapters. The muscular system makes movement possible. The skeletal system provides protection, form, and shape for the body, as well as storing minerals and some blood cells. The cardiovascular system delivers oxygen, nutrients, and vital substances throughout the body, and transports cellular waste products to the lungs and kidneys. The lymphatic system helps maintain the internal fluid environment, produces some types of blood cells, and regulates immunity. The respiratory system brings oxygen into the body and removes carbon dioxide and some water waste. The digestive system provides the body with water, nutrients, and minerals and removes solid wastes. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 5 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Body Systems, cont. urinary reproductive integumentary nervous endocrine The urinary system filters blood to remove wastes of cellular metabolism and maintains the electrolyte and fluid balance. The reproductive system is responsible for procreation. The integumentary system provides external covering for protection and regulates the body temperature and water content. The nervous system coordinates the reception of stimuli and transmits messages to stimulate movement. Neurologic means pertaining to the nervous system. The endocrine system secretes hormones and helps regulate body activities. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 6 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Types of tissues epithelial (see the layers) connective tissue nervous tissue striated muscle Fig Major types of tissue. Label the types of tissue: A, epithelial tissue of the type that comprises several cellular layers; B, connective tissue of elastic fibers; C, nervous tissue; D, muscle tissue of the striated type. A and D from Herlihy B, Maebius, NK: The human body in health and illness, ed 2, Philadelphia, 2003, Saunders. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 7 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Cell Development Terms
plasia means formation dysplasia aplasia hypoplasia hyperplasia anaplasia -trophy means nutrition hypertrophy Discuss the analysis of each term and its meaning: dys abnormal development a lack of development hypo lack of development, but not as severe as a- hyper abnormal increase in the number of normal cells ana loss of cell differentiation, reversal to more primitive form (discuss cell differentiation) hypertrophy increase in the size of an organ caused by an increase in the size of the cells (not the number of cells) Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 8 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

See the difference between hypertrophy and hyperplasia? Fig. 5-3 Comparison of hypertrophy and hyperplasia. A representation of tissue enlargement by hypertrophy and hyperplasia. From Ignatavicius MS, Workman ML, Mishler MA: Medical-surgical nursing across the health care continuum, ed 5, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders-Elsevier. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 9 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Which plane divides the body into front and back? [frontal] Which plane divides the body into right and left? [midsagittal] Which plane divides the body into top and bottom? [transverse] Notice which way the palms are facing in anatomic position. What is the difference between a plane and an aspect? [A plane is an imaginary flat surface; an aspect is a surface that faces in one direction.] The anatomic position is an erect body with arms at the side and palms turned forward. Fig Anatomic position with reference systems. The erect anterior view with palms forward is used as the point of reference in anatomic nomenclature. A, Frontal plane; B, transverse plane; C, midsagittal plane, also showing the posterior, lateral, and anterior aspects. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 10 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Directional Word Parts and Terms
anter/o toward the front; ventral poster/o toward the back, dorsal ventr/o belly side dors/o back side medi/o middle later/o toward the side trans across What are some terms created from each word part? anterior posterior ventral dorsal medial, median lateral transsexual, transpose Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 11 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Directional Word Parts and Terms, Cont.
super/o uppermost infer/o lowermost proxim/o nearer the origin dist/o far or distant (so does tel/e) cephal/o toward the head caud/o toward the tail What terms are created from each word part? superior inferior proximal (discuss nearer the origin or point of attachment) distal (discuss far or distant from the origin or point of attachment), telecardiography cephalad, cephalic, cephalometry, cephalodynia, cephalalgia caudad, caudal Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 12 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

anter/o + medi/o + -an = anteromedian poster/o + medi/o = posteromedian dors/o + later/o = dorsolateral poster/o + later/o = posterolateral anter/o + later/o = anterolateral medi/o + later/o = mediolateral infer/o + medi/o = inferomedian See how the combining forms combine to form directional terms. Other directional terms are posteroexternal, posterointernal, dorsoventral (from dors/o and ventr/o), anteroposterior, anterosuperior, and posterosuperior (from anter/o and poster/o + super/o). Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 13 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Quick Quiz! What term means the abnormal development of tissues or organs? aplasia anaplasia dysplasia hypoplasia The answer is C: dysplasia is the abnormal development of tissues or organs. Aplasia is the lack of development of an organ or tissue; anaplasia is a change in the structure and orientation of cells, characterized by a loss of differentiation and reversal to a more primitive form; hypoplasia, which is less severe than aplasia, is poor development of an organ or tissue. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 14 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Fig. 5-5 Patient positioning for a chest x-ray. A, In a posteroanterior (PA) projection, the anterior aspect of the chest is closest to the image receptor. B, In an anteroposterior (AP) projection, the posterior aspect of the chest is closest to the image receptor. C, In a left lateral chest projection, the left side of the patient is placed against the image receptor. From Ballinger PW, Frank ED: Merrill’s atlas of radiographic positions and radiologic procedures, vol 1, ed 10, St Louis, 2003, Mosby. Posteroanterior and anteroposterior describe the path of the x-rays. “Left” in left lateral describes which side of the patient faces the image. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 15 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Practice supination and pronation of the hands. Show students that supination of the hands makes a bowl for “soup” to remember which is which. Discuss these terms: supine, supination prone, pronation ambulant, ambulatory recumbent, lateral recumbent Fig Comparison of pronation and supination. A, Prone, lying facedown. B, Supine, lying on the back. C, Supination and pronation of the elbow and wrist joints, which permit the palm of the hand to turn up (supination) or down (pronation). Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 16 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Two principal body cavities: dorsal cavity and ventral cavity The dorsal cavity is divided into the cranial and spinal cavities. The ventral cavity contains large organs (viscera) and is divided by the diaphragm into the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity. The peritoneum lines the abdominopelvic cavity. The peritoneum, like all serous membranes, secretes a lubricating fluid that allows the organs to glide against one another or against the cavity wall. Fig The dorsal and ventral cavities. Label the numbered structures as you read. The dorsal cavity is divided into the cranial cavity (1) and spinal cavity (2). The ventral cavity is divided into the thoracic cavity (3) and the abdominopelvic cavity, which is subdivided into the abdominal cavity (4) and the pelvic cavity (5). Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 17 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

telecardiogram A tele- + cardio- + -gram is a tracing of the electrical impulses of the heart recorded by a machine distant from the patient. The word part tel/e means distant. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 18 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Body Regions head neck torso extremities Discuss the body regions. What do the head and torso contain? What are the upper and lower extremities? Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 19 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Combining Forms: Body Regions and Structures
abdomin/o abdomen acr/o extremities blephar/o eyelid cephal/o head chir/o hands cyst/o cyst, bladder, or sac dactyl/o digits lapar/o abdominal wall What terms contain these combining forms? Discuss abdominocentesis, acral, acrocyanosis, acrodermatitis, acrohypothermy, acromegaly, blepharitis, blepharedema, blepharal, blepharospasm, blepharotomy, blepharoplasty, blepharoptosis, cephalad, cephalgia, cephalodynia, cephalometry, chiropodist, chiropody, chirospasm, chiroplasty, cystitis, dactylography, dactylospasm, dactylitis, laparoscopy, laparoscope, laparotomy, and others. Abdominocentesis is usually called abdominal paracentesis. What are the digits? Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 20 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Combining Forms: Body Regions and Structures, cont.
omphal/o umbilicus onych/o nail pelv/i pelvis periton/o peritoneum pod/o feet som/a, somat/o body thorac/o chest (thorax) What terms contain these combining forms? Discuss abdominothoracic, cephalopelvic, omphalic, omphalocele, omphalitis, omphalorrhexis, omphalorrhagia, onychectomy, onchomalacia, onychomycosis, onychophagist, onychopathy, pelvic, abdominopelvic, abdominothoracic, cephalopelvic disproportion, podiatrist, podiatry, somatic, psychosomatic, thoracodynia, thoracoplasty, thoracotomy, thoracoscopy. What is the peritoneum? What does peritonitis mean? An adhesion can occur anywhere within the body, but it often occurs within the abdominopelvic cavity. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 21 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

What does each abbreviation mean? Why is this division useful? Fig Abdominal quadrants. The four quadrants in this anatomic division of the abdomen are determined by drawing a vertical and horizontal line through the umbilicus. RUQ, LUQ, RLQ, and LLQ are abbreviations for right upper quadrant, left upper quadrant, right lower quadrant, and left lower quadrant, respectively. From Thompson JM, Wilson SF: Health assessment for nursing practice, St Louis, 1996, Mosby. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 22 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

What other terms have you heard that have the suffix -centesis? [amniocentesis, thoracocentesis, or thoracentesis] Fig. 5-9 Abdominal paracentesis. In this surgical puncturing of the abdomen, fluid is withdrawn for diagnosis or to remove excess fluid. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 23 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Ascites is the abnormal accumulation of a fluid in the peritoneal cavity. It is often an indication of liver disease. Abdominal paracentesis may be performed to relieve pressure or to obtain fluid to test. Peritonitis is often a complication of ascites. Fig Ascites. This abnormal accumulation of a fluid in the peritoneal cavity is treated with dietary therapy and drugs. Abdominal paracentesis may be performed to relieve the pressure of the accumulated fluid. From Lewis SM, Heitkemper MM, Dirksen SR, et al: Medical-surgical nursing: assessment and management of clinical problems, ed 7, St Louis, 2007, Mosby-Elsevier. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 24 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Fig Common types of abdominal hernias. A, Umbilical hernias result from a weakness in the abdominal wall around the umbilicus. An incisional hernia is herniation through inadequately healed surgery. In a femoral hernia, a loop of intestine descends through the femoral canal into the groin (femoral means pertaining to the thigh). B, Inguinal hernias are of two types. A direct hernia occurs through an area of weakness in the abdominal wall. In an indirect hernia, a loop of intestine descends through the inguinal canal, an opening in the abdominal wall for passage of the spermatic cord in males, and a ligament of the uterus in females. Any area of weakness can create a hernia. Most are reparable by surgery. Kinds of abdominal hernias include umbilical, femoral, incisional, and inguinal. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 25 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Body Fluids intracellular extracellular edema Body fluids comprise more than half the body’s weight. Blood and lymph are the main fluids. Body fluids are found either within the cells (intracellular) or outside the cells (extracellular). Extracellular fluid is divided into plasma (fluid part of blood) and interstitial fluid (fills spaces between cells). Edema is the accumulation of fluid in the interstitial compartment. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 26 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Body fluids circulate in two distinct but interrelated systems: the cardiovascular system and lymphatic system. Lymph is the clear fluid that has escaped blood vessels. The lymphatic system returns lymph to the cardiovascular system by conveying it through a network of vessels that are not blood vessels. Fig The body’s fluid compartments. Fluid makes up 60% of the adult’s body weight, and most is intracellular fluid. Two types of extracellular fluid are interstitial fluid and plasma. Plasma is the fluid part of the blood. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 27 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Word Parts: Body Fluids
crin/o, -crine secrete dacry/o, lacrim/o tear, tearing or crying -emia condition of the blood hidr/o sweat or perspiration hydr/o water Think of terms that use crin/o, -crine, dacry/o, lacrim/o, and -emia: endocrine, exocrine, endocrine, dacryolith, dacryolithiasis, dacryocyst, dacryocystitis, lacrimal, lacrimation, leukemia. Lacrimation can lead to ophthalmitis, or inflammation of the eye. Note the spelling and meaning differences between hidr/o and hydr/o. Terms containing hidr/o include hidrosis, hidradenitis, and hidradenoma. Terms containing hydr/o include hydrotherapy and hydrophobia. Diaphoresis is the word for excessive sweating. Endocrine glands include the sex glands, the thyroid, and the adrenal glands. Calculi are stones, which usually form in the biliary or urinary tracts but can sometimes form in the lacrimal passages. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 28 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Word Parts: Body Fluids, cont.
lymph/o lymph muc/o mucus -poiesis production -poietin substance that causes production py/o pus sial/o saliva (or salivary glands) ur/o urine (or urinary tract) Think of terms that are formed by these word parts: lymphatic, mucus, mucoid, mucous, mucosa, mucolytic, hematopoiesis, erythropoiesis, erythropoietin, pyuria, pyogenic, sialolith, sialography, urology, hematuria, polyuria, anuria, pyuria. Mucolytic agents are used to treat diseases such as bronchial asthma. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 29 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

An abscess is pus contained within a thin pyogenic membrane surrounded by harder granulation tissue. Fig An abscess. The pus is contained within a thin, pyogenic membrane surrounded by harder granulation tissue, the tissue’s response to the infection. From Dorland’s illustrated medical dictionary, ed 31, Philadelphia, 2007, Saunders-Elsevier. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 30 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Hydrocephalus is usually caused by obstruction of the flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the ventricles of the brain. Fig Four-month-old child with hydrocephalus. Hydrocephalus is usually caused by obstruction of the flow of cerebrospinal fluid. If hydrocephalus occurs in an infant, the soft bones of the skull push apart as the head increases in size. From Hart CA, Broadhead RL: Colour atlas of pediatric infectious diseases, London, 1992, Mosby-Wolfe. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 31 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Word Parts: Body Fluids, cont.
coagul/o coagulation cyt/o cell erythr/o red hem/o, hemat/o blood leuk/o white thromb/o clot -cyte cell -osis increased or abnormal when cellular components -penia deficiency What terms contain these word parts? anticoagulant, cytology, erythrocyte, hematology, hemophilia, hemolysis, hematoma, hemodialysis, leukocyte, thrombosis, thrombus, erythrocytopenia. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 32 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Quick Quiz! What does sial/o mean? sodium saliva or salivary gland sweat cell The answer is B: sial/o means saliva or salivary gland. natr/o means sodium; hidr/o means sweat; and cellul/o, cyt/o and -cyte mean cell. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 33 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Glands salivary thyroid adrenal sudoriferous Glands produce secretions. Salivary glands produce saliva. Thyroid and adrenal glands are endocrine glands and secrete their hormones directly into the bloodstream. Sudoriferous glands are sweat glands, but hidr/o is generally the combining form used for sweat. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 34 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

About half the blood is composed of cells and cell fragments, and the remainder is plasma. The cells and cell fragments are heavier than the plasma, so they fall to the bottom when they are spun in a centrifuge. Fig Composition of the blood. The cells and cell fragments are heavier than the liquid matrix, the plasma. When treated blood is spun in a centrifuge, the heavier elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes, and blood platelets) are packed into the bottom of the tube. From Applegate E: The anatomy and physiology learning system, ed 2, Philadelphia, 2000, Saunders. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 35 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Coagulation is when the blood forms clots
Coagulation is when the blood forms clots. Coagulation begins almost as soon as the epithelium of a blood vessel is damaged. Fibrin forms a fibrous network that is necessary for coagulation. A thrombosis is the formation of an internal blood clot. Thrombocytopenia or thrombopenia is a reduction in the number of blood platelets. Fig Blood coagulation. This scanning electron micrograph has been colored to emphasize the different structures. Red blood cells (red) are entangled with the fibrin (yellow). Note the thin center and the thick edges that give red blood cells a concave appearance. The platelets (blue), which initiate clotting, are also visible. Copyright Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc, 1994. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 36 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

There are far more red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes, than white blood cells (WBCs), also known as leukocytes. Tiny cell fragments are called platelets, or thrombocytes. They are important for blood clotting. Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets are easily distinguished in stained blood. Erythrocytes contain hemoglobin, a protein that carries oxygen to the tissues and waste carbon dioxide to the lungs. Anemia is a condition in which the number of red blood cells is decreased. Pallor and tachycardia are typical signs of mild anemia. Leukocytes help to combat infection. Fig Stained blood. There are normally many more erythrocytes (red blood cells) than leukocytes (white blood cells). Only one leukocyte is shown here, although there are many types, each containing a nucleus. Platelets, tiny cell fragments, are also shown. From Gartner LP, Hiatt JL: Color textbook of histology, ed 2, Philadelphia, 2001, Saunders. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 37 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Blood Terminology erythrocytosis erythrocytopenia, erythropenia leukocytosis leukocytopenia, leukopenia leukemia thrombocytosis thrombopenia Erythrocytosis is an abnormal increase in the total number of red blood cells. Erythropenia, or erythrocytopenia, is an abnormal decrease in the total number of red blood cells. Leukocytosis is an abnormal increase in the total number of white blood cells, or leukocytes (leuk/o + cyt/o + -osis). Leukopenia, or leukocytopenia, is an abnormal decrease in the total number of white blood cells. Leukemia is a progressive, malignant disease of the blood-forming organs. Can you guess what thrombocytosis and thrombopenia (thrombocytopenia) mean? Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 38 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Blood Defenses and Immunity
resistance susceptibility inflammation Immunity is the body’s ability to counteract invasion by infectious organisms. Immunity can be divided into nonspecific and specific types. Resistance is the body’s natural ability to counteract microorganisms or toxins. What factors boost your resistance? [rest, moderate exercise, nutrition] There are two types of resistance: specific and nonspecific. Specific immunity is carried out by a type of leukocyte, the lymphocytes. B-lymphocytes direct antibody-mediated specific immunity; the body makes specific fighters (called antibodies) in reaction to foreign substances (called antigens). T-lymphocytes direct cell-mediated specific immunity. Natural and artificial refer to how the immunity is obtained. Susceptibility is vulnerability to a disease or disorder. What factors affect your susceptibility? Remember that the skin is the largest component of the immune system. Why do some people catch a cold or virus and others do not? Inflammation, a nonspecific defense, is a protective response of body tissue that brings greater circulation to an area after irritation or injury. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 39 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Blood Defenses and Immunity, cont.
phagocytosis interferon complement antigen antibody Phagocytosis is the ingestion and destruction by phagocytes of substances such as bacteria, protozoa, cells, and cell debris. Many leukocytes are phagocytic. Interferon is a cell-produced protein that protects the cells from viral infection. Complement is a protein that not only promotes inflammation and phagocytosis, but also causes bacterial cells to rupture. An antigen is any substance such as a bacterium, virus, or toxin that the body regards as foreign. An antibody is a disease-fighting protein produced by the immune system in response to the presence of a specific antigen. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 40 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Blood Defenses and Immunity, cont.
immunization vaccination immunocompromised, immunosuppressive, immunosuppressant hypersensitivity, allergies, anaphylaxis AIDS What does each of these terms mean? How does a person get acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)? [sexually transmitted, contact with contaminated body fluids (IV drug users, older transfusions), infected mother] Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 41 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Active immunity occurs when the individual’s own body produces an immune response to a harmful antigen. Passive immunity results when the immune agents develop in another person or animal and then are transferred to an individual who was not previously immune. Both active and passive immunity require recognition of specific antigens. Natural and artificial refer to how the immunity is obtained. Active artificial and passive artificial immunities require deliberate actions, such as vaccination. Fig Four types of specific immunity. Active natural immunity and passive natural immunity, as the names imply, occur through the normal activities of either an individual contracting a disease or a fetus being exposed to maternal antibodies. Both active artificial and passive artificial immunities require deliberate actions of receiving vaccinations or antibodies. From Applegate E: The anatomy and physiology learning system, ed 2, Philadelphia, 2000, Saunders. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 42 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Additional Terminology
benign malignant metastasis, metastasize bioterrorism Benign means not having a tendency to spread. Cancer (CA) cells are malignant and exhibit the properties of invasion and metastasis, or spreading. The immune system acts against cancer cells to hinder their spread. Bioterrorism is use of pathogenic biological agents to cause terror in a population. Discuss further if time allows. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 43 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Quick Quiz! The two kinds of body defenses are nonspecific and specific resistance cell-mediated and antibody-mediated erythropoiesis and leukopoiesis vaccination and antibiotic The answer is A: the two kinds of body defenses are nonspecific and specific resistance. Cell-mediated and antibody-mediated are both kinds of specific immunity; erythropoiesis and leukopoiesis are the production of blood cells; a vaccination is administered to induce immunity whereas an antibiotic is given to destroy microorganisms. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 44 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Fig Bacteria in body fluids. B, Gram-positive cocci in a Gram stain of a direct smear. Note the small size of the bacteria (which stain purple) compared with the much larger cells. D, Gram-negative bacilli (arrow) in the presence of numerous leukocytes in a Gram stain of a direct smear. F, Spirochetes in a special preparation from material collected from a chancre, a skin lesion that occurs in syphilis. B from Murray PR, Rosenthal KS, Kobayashi GS, Pfaller MA: Medical microbiology, ed 3, St Louis, 1994, Mosby; D from Forbes BA, Sahm DF, Weissfeld AS: Bailey & Scott’s diagnostic microbiology, ed 11, St Louis, 2002, Mosby; F from Atlas RM: Principles of microbiology, St Louis, 1995, Mosby. Types of pathogenic microorganisms include bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses. A special staining technique (Gram staining) helps classify bacteria into cocci, bacilli, or spirilla. Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 45 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Acronyms and Abbreviations
AIDS CA CBC, cbc CDC CSF FEMA HIV AIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndrome CA cancer, carcinoma CBC, cbc complete blood count CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CSF cerebrospinal fluid FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency HIV human immunodeficiency virus Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 46 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

Acronyms and Abbreviations, cont.
LLQ LUQ RBC RLQ RUQ WBC WMD LLQ left lower quadrant LUQ left upper quadrant RBC red blood cell, red blood cell count RLQ right lower quadrant RUQ right upper quadrant WBC white blood cell, white blood cell count WMD weapons of mass destruction Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2003 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Slide 47 Yet to receive Original Copyrite Info

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