1. Global Communication Theories and Paradigms

2. Dependency Theory
Originating as theory of economic structure, applied in International Communication in 1960s.
the “core-periphery structure” in economy extended to culture.
The two-level structure was criticized and it was developed into a three-level structure “core——semi-periphery——periphery”
Criticism：too much dependent on the theory of economic monopoly

3. World System Theory Immanuel Wallerstein
Based on “core-periphery structure”, semi-periphery was added
Interpreted from the perspective of politics, economy and culture
In terms of economy and politics, the world economic system is fundamentally capitalist system with the West as the core. The Third World and developing countries are the semi-periphery and periphery, exploited economically by the core countries. The political system, based on the economic system, shows the same structure, where the West is the core and developing countries are subordinate to the developed.

4. In terms of culture, the western capitalism is the core of the world economic system, and culture, as an ideological tool serves the economic foundation. Accordingly, the western culture and ideology combined with capitalism becomes world culture. Thus world culture is fundamentally the culture of the core countries represented by modernization, homogeneity，westernization and even Americanization.

5. Criticism:
The core-periphery shows the logic of fatalism
Too much emphasis on economic factors shows the simplification of the theory. The real world is much more complicated.
Lacking in consideration of cultural globalization

6. Theory of Cultural Imperialism
Based on Dependency Theory, Herbert Schiller
published Mass Communications and
American Empire in 1969.
He introduced the concept of Cultural Imperialism
He studied the global structures in the international communication industries and the links between global players and the dominant states.

7. At the heart of his argument, US-based global players were in league with US military interests. They were undermining local culture autonomy and sovereignty.
Communication and Cultural Domination （1976）
Herbert Schiller  wrote:

8. "The concept of cultural imperialism today best describes the sum of the processes by which a society is brought into the modern world system and how its dominating stratum is attracted, pressured, forced, and sometimes bribed into shaping social institutions to correspond to, or even promote, the values and structures of the dominating centre of the system.
The public media are the foremost example of operating enterprises that are used in the penetrative process. For penetration on a significant scale the media themselves must be captured by the dominating/penetrating power. This occurs largely through the commercialization of broadcasting."

9. In the 1990s,Schiller reviewed US role in international communication to find out that the US is still promoting an ever-expanding communication sector.
The motivation behind cross-border cultural and political interaction is not globalization but the transnational expansion of western capitalism. Multi-polarization after the cold war hasn’t changed the fact of cultural intrusion and domination.

10. Main features of cultural imperialism：
1. Based on economic power, in line with expansion of global market
2. Aimed at expansion and penetration of cultural values and ideology,
influencing and framing values and cultural ideas of other countries with the export of large amount of cultural products,
the final goal being global ideological domination and cultural monopoly.
3. Sales of information products is the major means. Culture and values are spread in a hidden way with the information diffusion.

11. Cultural imperialism, as a branch of international communication theories, shows its diversification when embodied in Edward Said’s Orientalism, John Tomlinson’s cultural imperialism theory, Hans Morgenthau’s nationalism concept, Francis Fukuyama’s concept of “end of history”, and Samuel Huntington’s “ Clash of Civilizations”.
However, with the adjustment of world system, the theory has caused criticism.

12. John Tomlinson is the first one to provide a critique of cultural imperialism theory.
In his book Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction, he summarized research on the Third World’s reception of American television shows, and challenges the cultural imperialism argument,

13. conveying his doubts about the degree to which US shows in developing nations actually carry US values and improve the profits of US companies.
Tomlinson suggests that cultural imperialism is growing in some respects, but local transformation and interpretations of imported media products propose that cultural diversification is not at an end in global society.

14. He explains that one of the fundamental conceptual mistakes of cultural imperialism is to take for granted that the distribution of cultural goods can be considered as cultural dominance.
He thus supports his argument highly criticizing the concept that Americanization is occurring through global overflow of American television products.

15. He also doubts the concept that cultural agents are passive receivers of information. He states that movement between cultural/geographical areas always involves translation, mutation, adaptation, and the creation of hybridity.

16. He thinks globalization can better describe today’s new world either in terms of the reality or in terms of the theoretical discourse, compared with the concept of “imperialism”.
Imperialism means hegemonies spread their values and ideologies around the world from the core zone, while globalization means interdependence and mutual benefits in the global community.
Cultural imperialism should be replaced by cultural globalization.

17. Other major critiques are that the term is not defined well, and employs further terms that are not defined well, and therefore lacks explanatory power, that cultural imperialism is hard to measure, and that the theory of a legacy of colonialism is not always true.

18. Media Imperialism Related to but different from Cultural Imperialism
Both refer to cultural invasion from powers, but have different focuses.
Cultural imperialism refers to the export of culture and values in a broader sense, economy, politics and education all included. Media imperialism refers to the export of media system, media ownership, media technologies and media content.
Cultural imperialism emphasizes the spread of culture and values, focused on the content. Media imperialism emphasizes information and technology, focused on the carrier and form of information.

19. Oliver Boyd-Barrett ( 1977)
The process whereby the ownership, structure, distribution, or content of the media in any one country are singularly or together subject to substantial external pressures from the media interests of any other country or countries, without proportionate of influence by the country so affected.

20. In the process of globalization, modern media technology is directly related with capitalist hegemony.
Schiller thinks America’s powerful communication system forms an imperial network, which is a power pyramid, where America is at the top while the newly independent nations are at the bottom.
Elliott & Golding point out that international media system is a mechanism to get developing countries under the domination of western capitalist cultural hegemony.
And western industrialized countries control the channels of media production and distribution.

21. The core zone of capitalism monopolizes in five areas: new technology, global finance, natural resources, media & communication and weapons of massive destruction.
Thus globalization could only strengthen the “core-periphery” structure, and lead to the further disorder in information and communication.

22. New World Information and Communication Order
It grew out of the New International Economic Order, dealing with the imbalance of global communication.
A wide range of issues were raised as part of NWICO discussions.
Some of these involved long-standing issues of media coverage of the developing world and unbalanced flows of media influence.
But other issues involved new technologies with important military and commercial uses. The developing world was likely to be marginalized by satellite and computer technologies.

23. News reporting on the developing world that reflects the priorities of news agencies in London, Paris and New York.
An unbalanced flow of mass media from the developed world (especially the United States) to the underdeveloped countries. Everyone watches American movies and television shows.
Advertising agencies in the developed world have indirect but significant effects on mass media in the developing countries. Some observers also judged the messages of these ads to be inappropriate for the Third World.

24. An unfair division of the radio spectrum
An unfair division of the radio spectrum. A small number of developed countries controlled almost 90% of the radio spectrum. Much of this was for military use.
There were similar concerns about the allocation of the geostationary orbit (parking spots in space) for satellites.
Satellite broadcasting of television signals into Third World countries without prior permission was widely perceived as a threat to national sovereignty.

25. Use of satellites to collect information on crops and natural resources in the Third World at a time when most developing countries lacked the capacity to analyze this data.
At the time most mainframe computers were located in the United States and there were concerns about the location of databases (such as airline reservations) and the difficulty of developing countries catching up with the US lead in computers.

26. The protection of journalists from violence was raised as an issue for discussion.
As part of NWICO debates there were suggestions for study on how to protect journalists and even to discipline journalists who broke "generally recognized ethical standards".
However, the MacBride Commission specifically came out against the idea of licensing journalists.

27. Response of the United States:
The United States saw these issues simply as barriers to the free flow of communication and to the interests of American media corporations.
It disagreed with the Macbride report at points where it questioned the role of the private sector in communications.
It viewed the NWICO as dangerous to freedom of the press by ultimately putting an organization run by governments at the head of controlling global media, potentially allowing for censorship on a large scale.

28. From another perspective, the MacBride Commission recommendations requiring the licensing of journalists amounted to prior censorship and ran directly counter to basic US law on the freedom of expression.

29. Do you think in the age of new media, the situation of the world information order is better than before?

30. Information Gap Hypothesis:
It explains that knowledge, like other forms of wealth, is often differently distributed throughout a social system.

31. Specifically, the hypothesis predicts that “as the infusion of mass media information into a social system increases, higher socioeconomic status segments tend to acquire this information faster than lower socioeconomic-status population segments so that the gap in knowledge between the two tends to increase rather than decrease” .

32. When information resources become essential for national strength, the knowledge gap between developed and developing countries widens the political-economic gap.