Biomes, eco-regions and biodiversity hotspots

Biomes, eco-regions and biodiversity hotspots
Rich Knight, Biodiversity & Conservation Biology UWC Image Ref: Note: Additional notes in text - all slides with the green tick are examinable

Biomes (Terrestrial) Spatial units with "Ecological Similarity" with respect to communities of Plants, Animals, Soil Organisms. Defined based on Image credit: (soil bacteria) Plant structures (such as trees, shrubs, and grasses), Leaf types (such as broadleaf and needle leaf), Plant spacing (forest, woodland, savanna), Climate (moisture and temperature).

Biome characteristics
Not defined by genetic, taxonomic, or historical similarities Biomes are often identified with particular patterns of Image credit: -scrub-shrub-wetland Ecological succession e.g. Savanna, Climax vegetation e.g. Tropical Rainforest.

Biome Biodiversity Determined especially by fauna e.g. mammals
Subdominant plant forms depends on Abiotic factors (soil, light etc) Biomass productivity of the dominant vegetation Species diversity tends to be higher in biomes with particular patterns of Image Credit: higher net primary productivity, higher moisture availability higher temperatures

Biome - distribution Major factor determining their distribution are
Latitude: arctic, boreal, temperate, subtropical, tropical Humidity: humid, semi-humid, semi-arid, and arid. seasonal variation: rainfall may be distributed evenly throughout the year, or possess seasonal variations. dry summer, wet winter: most regions of the earth receive most of their rainfall during the summer months; Mediterranean climate regions receive their rainfall during the winter months. Elevation: increasing elevation causes a distribution of habitat types similar to that of increasing latitude. Biodiversity increases towards the equator and with increased humidity.

Biomes Schematic Diagram
You use two gradients to demonstrate how biomes are globally distributed. Using decreasing temperature (vertical axis) and increasing moisture (horizontal axis). Where there is the warmest temperatures with the wettest conditions you get tropical rainforests. Where there are still tropical temperatures by less or more seasonal moisture tropical deciduous forests are found. Less rainfall that also has pronounced seasonality in the tropics results in savannas, which with increasing aridity become tropical grasslands and under very arid conditions become hot (warm) deserts. More to more temperate conditions, where it is wetter temperate deciduous forests exist, but with lower rainfall (and more seasonal change in temperatures) temperate grasslands dominate (prairies in north America and Steppes in Central Asia). Temperate areas that are very arid result in cold deserts such as the Gobi in Mongolia). As temperatures decrease still further we get the boreal (coniferous forests) also known as the taiga, the tundra where it is too cold for trees to occur and only the top metre or so of soil thaws during the summer period and then finally the permanently frozen polar regions. Image Credit:

Udvardy Classification (12)
Tropical humid forests Subtropical and temperate rainforests or woodlands Temperate broad-leaf forests or woodlands and sub-polar deciduous thickets Temperate needle-leaf forests or woodlands Evergreen sclerophyllous forests, scrub, or woodlands Tropical dry or deciduous forests (including Monsoon forests) or woodlands Temperate grasslands Warm deserts and semi-deserts Cold-winter (continental) deserts and semi-deserts Tundra communities and barren Arctic deserts Mixed mountain and highland systems with complex zonation Mixed island systems Tropical humid forests Subtropical and temperate rainforests or woodlands Temperate broad-leaf forests or woodlands and sub-polar deciduous thickets Temperate needle-leaf forests or woodlands Evergreen sclerophyllous forests, scrub, or woodlands Tropical dry or deciduous forests (including Monsoon forests) or woodlands Temperate grasslands Warm deserts and semi-deserts Cold-winter (continental) deserts and semi-deserts Tundra communities and barren Arctic deserts Mixed mountain and highland systems with complex zonation Mixed island systems Image Credit:

WWF: major habitat types (14)
Tundra (arctic) Boreal forests/taiga (subarctic, humid) Temperate coniferous forests (temperate, humid to semi-humid) Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests (temperate, humid) Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (temperate, semi-arid) Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and shrub (temperate warm, semi-humid to semi-arid with winter rainfall) Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests (tropical and subtropical, semi-humid) Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, humid) Image credit:

WWF ... /continued Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, semi-humid) Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (tropical and subtropical, semi-arid) Montane grasslands and shrublands (alpine or montane climate) Deserts and xeric shrublands (temperate to tropical, arid) Mangrove (subtropical and tropical, salt water inundated) Flooded grasslands and savannas (temperate to tropical, fresh or brackish water inundated) Further divided into 825 terrestrial eco-regions. WWF identified 200 ecoregions for conservation prioritization.

Aquatic biomes Continental shelf Littoral/Intertidal zone Riparian
Pond/Lake Coral reef Kelp forest Pack ice Hydrothermal vents Cold seeps Benthic zone Pelagic zone Epipelagic Mesopelagic Bathypelagic Abyssopelagic Hadopelagic Neritic zone Continental shelf - The continental shelf is the extended perimeter of each continent and associated coastal plain, which is covered during interglacial periods such as the current epoch by relatively shallow seas (known as shelf seas) and gulfs. Littoral/Intertidal zone - Littoral refers to the coast of an ocean or sea, or to the banks of a river, lake or estuary. The Intertidal zone is also called the littoral zone and is defined as the area between the high water and low water marks. This environment exposes organisms to air at low tide and submerged at high tide. Riparian - is the interface between land and running surface water. Forms of Riparian zones include grassland, woodland, forest and wetland. Riparian vegetation is characterized by hydrophilic plants. Pond - is typically a man made body of water smaller than a lake. It is formed by excavating a hollow in which water may lie, filling an existing depression with groundwater or diverting water from a stream, or impounding water to form a dam. A lake is a sufficiently large water body to have a profundal zone (where a limit of effective light penetration exists for organisms). Coral reef - A structure that is made from the skeletons of soft-bodied coral animals or polyps, and is found in warm and warm temperate waters. Coral animals come in three varieties: hard, soft and sea fans. Coral reefs take two main forms: shallow water reefs and deep water reefs. Deep water reefs have only recently been discovered, often located in dark, cold water and growing very slowly in the absence of light. Kelp forest - a marine community formed by brown macroalgae of the order Laminariales. They occur near worldwide in temperate and polar offshore regions. Characterized by immense primary production. Pack ice - consists of drift ice sea is carried along by winds and sea currents ice that floats on the surface of the water in cold regions and has been driven together to form a large single mass. This is contrasted to fast , ice, which is attached ("fastened") to a shore. Hydrothermal vents - also referred to as a "black smoker", they are fissure in a planet's surface from which geothermally heated and super-heated water issues. Hydrothermal vents are usually found near volcanically active places, tectonic plates that are moving apart, ocean basins, and hotspots. Marine hydrothermal vents are biologically productive, often hosting complex communities fuelled by the chemicals dissolved in the vent fluids. Common land types include hot springs, fumaroles and geysers. Cold seeps -sometimes called a cold vent is an area of the ocean floor where hydrogen sulfide, methane and other hydrocarbon-rich fluid seepage occurs. Cold seeps differ from hydrothermal vents since their emissions are of the same temperature as the surrounding seawater. Cold seeps support several endemic species and entire communities of light independent organisms - known as extremophiles - which most rely on a symbiotic relationship with chemoautotrophic bacteria. Benthic zone - refers to the lowest level of a body of water, such as the floor of an ocean or a lake. Organisms living in this are associated with and may even be physically attached to the ground and are called benthos. Benthos include life forms that often have to tolerate cool temperatures and low oxygen levels. Pelagic zone - refers to the open sea or ocean and away from the coast some time called the open ocean zone. This zone is further divided into sections, creating a number of sub-zones, based princippaly on depth/light penetration which in tern produce environments with a different ecological character. The Epipelagic (from the surface down to around 200 m) is the illuminated surface zone where there is enough light for photosynthesis. The Mesopelagic (from 200 m down to around 1,000 m) is the twilight zone where there is insufficient light for photosynthesis. The Bathypelagic (from 1,000 m down to around 4,000 m) is almost entirely dark with no living plants but there is the occasional bioluminescent from organism such as lanternfish. Animals survive by consuming detritus falling from the zones above, or by preying on other organisms. The two deeper zones, are the Abyssopelagic (from 4,000 m down to above the ocean floor) and the Hadopelagic (the deep water in ocean trenches) where no light exists and most creatures are blind and colourless. Neritic zone - Neritic zone spans from the low-tide line to the edge of the continental shelf in oceans. This region receives ample sunlight and extends to a depth of about 200 meters (656 feet), where the bottom is covered with seaweed. The neritic zone has fairly stable temperature and is a home to most of the world's great fishing areas.

34 Biodiversity Hotspots
>70% habitat lost, >1 500 endemic vascular plant spp. Investment criteria for Conservation International’s prioritization.

Defining Biodiversity Hotspots
Coined by Norman Myers in two articles in “The Environmentalist” (1988 & 1990) Revised by Myers “Hotspots: Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions” (1999) Thirty-four areas are identified and support nearly 60% of the world's plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species Half of the world’s plant species and 42 percent of all terrestrial vertebrate species are endemic to hotspots Covers only 2.3 percent of the Earth's land surface Therefore defined as "a biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is threatened with destruction"

Critique of Biodiv. Hotspots
High profile of the biodiversity hotspots concept - World Banks funding has resulted in considerable criticism Inadequate representation of other species richness (e.g. total species richness or threatened species richness). Inadequate representation of taxa other than vascular plants (e.g. vertebrates, or fungi). No provision to protect smaller scale richness No provision for changing land use patterns. Do not consider ecosystem services Do not consider phylogenetic diversity. Image Credit:

Global Conservation Do not address the concept of cost
The purpose of biodiversity hotspots is not simply to identify regions that are of high biodiversity value, but to prioritise conservation spending. The regions identified include regions in the developed world (e.g. the California Floristic Province), alongside regions in the developing world (e.g. Madagascar). The cost of land is likely to vary between these regions by an order of magnitude or more, but the biodiversity hotspots do not consider the conservation importance of this difference.

North and Central America
California Floristic Province Caribbean Islands Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands Mesoamerica 1 3 3 2 4 4

South America Atlantic Forest Cerrado
Chilean Winter Rainfall Valdivian Forests Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena Tropical Andes 4 5 4 5 1 2 5 1 3 3 3

Europe and Central Asia
Caucasus Irano-Anatolian Mediterranean Basin Mountains of Central Asia 3 1 3 3 2 2 4 3 3 4 2

Africa Cape Floristic Region Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa
Eastern Afromontane Guinean Forests of West Africa Horn of Africa Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Succulent Karoo 5 3 4 4 4 3 2 3 2 3 6 2 7 8 7 1

Asia-Pacific East Melanesian Islands Himalaya Indo-Burma Japan
Mountains of Southwest China New Caledonia New Zealand Philippines Polynesia-Micronesia Southwest Australia Sundaland Wallacea Western Ghats and Sri Lanka 4 2 4 5 13 3 8 9 13 11 12 1 9 9 6 10 7

California Floristic Province
Mediterranean-type climate of North America High levels of plant endemism the giant sequoia, the planet's largest living organism and less massive relative, the coastal redwood. Has a number of threatened endemic species such as the giant kangaroo rat and the desert slender salamander Some of the last individuals of the Critically Endangered California condor Wilderness destruction caused by commercial farming Heavily threatened by the expansion of urban areas, pollution, and road construction. Text and image extracted from:

California Floristic Province
Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 73.451 Endemic Plant Species 2.124 Endemic Threatened Birds 4 Endemic Threatened Mammals 5 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 8 Extinct Species 2 Human Population Density (people/km 2) 121 Area Protected (km 2) Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV 30.002 Table extracted from: Recorded extinctions since *Categories I-IV afford higher levels of protection.

Caribbean Islands Diverse ecosystems from montane cloud forests to cactus scrublands Devastated by deforestation Hotspot has dozens of threatened species, including two species of solenodon (giant shrews) and the Cuban crocodile. The hotspot is also remarkable for the diminutive nature of much of its fauna, boasting the world's smallest bird (the tiny bee hummingbird) and smallest snake. Text and image extracted from:

Caribbean Islands Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 229,549
Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 22,955 Endemic Plant Species 6,550 Endemic Threatened Birds 48 Endemic Threatened Mammals 18 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 143 Extinct Species 38 Human Population Density (people/km 2) 155 Area Protected (km 2) 29,605 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 16,306 Table extracted from:

Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands
Includes Mexico's main mountain chains, mountaintops in Baja California and southern US An area of rugged mountainous terrain, high relief, and deep canyons. Quarter of Mexico's plant species are found here, many of which are endemic. The pine forests of Michoaca'n provide over-wintering sites for the annual monarch butterfly migrations Excessive logging is causing destruction of pine forests and consequent loss of habitat. Text and image extracted from:

Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands
Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 461,265 Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 92,253 Endemic Plant Species 3,975 Endemic Threatened Birds 7 Endemic Threatened Mammals 2 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 36 Extinct Species 1 Human Population Density (people/km 2) 32 Area Protected (km 2) 27,361 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 8,900 Table extracted from:

Mesoamerica The Mesoamerican forests are the third largest among the world's hotspots. Endemic species include quetzals, howler monkeys, and 17, plant species. Is also a corridor for many Neotropical migrant bird species. The hotspot's montane forests are important for amphibians, many endemic species of which are in dramatic decline due to an interaction between habitat loss, fungal disease and climate change. Text and image extracted from:

Mesoamerica Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 1,130,019

Atlantic Forest Occurs in tropical South America includes 20,000 plant species, and % are endemic. Only 10 percent or less remains. More than 24 Critically Endangered vertebrate species including three species of lion tamarins and six bird species Hotspot has almost 950 avian species with endemics such as the red-billed curassow, the Brazilian merganser. Sugarcane plantations and later, coffee plantations has contributed to significant habitat destruction over the centuries With massive urban growth of Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo threaten what remains of this hotspot. Text and image extracted from:

Atlantic Forest Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 1,233,875

Cerrado Comprising 21% of Brazil
Most extensive woodland-savanna in South America. Has a pronounced dry season and supports a unique array of drought and fire- adapted plant species Numerous endemic bird species. Large mammals such as the giant anteater, giant armadillo, jaguar and maned wolf still survive despite rapid expansion of Brazil's agricultural frontier, which focuses primarily on soy and corn. Ranching is another major threat to the region, as it produces almost 40 million cattle a year. Text and image extracted from:

Cerrado Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 2,031,990
Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 438,910 Endemic Plant Species 4,400 Endemic Threatened Birds 10 Endemic Threatened Mammals 4 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 2 Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) 13 Area Protected (km 2) 111,051 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 28,736

Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests
Isolated by being bounded by the Pacific Ocean, the Andes Mountains, and the Atacama Desert. These forests have a rich endemic flora and fauna. Protection from logging now exists. Rare fauna include Andean cat, the mountain vizcacha, & Andean condor. Reptilian, amphibian, and freshwater fish endemism is high. Threats include overgrazing, invasive species, & urbanization. Major hydroelectric dams and coastal development are specific problems facing the conservation of this hotspot. Text and image extracted from:

Chilean Winter Rainfall- Valdivian Forests
Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 397,142 Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 119,143 Endemic Plant Species 1,957 Endemic Threatened Birds 6 Endemic Threatened Mammals 5 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 15 Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) 37 Area Protected (km 2) 50,745 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 44,388 Table extracted from:

Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena
Bordered by Mesoamerica in the north, and to the east the Tropical Andes hotspots. Endemic fauna include bare-necked umbrella bird and the brightly colored poison dart frogs, are characteristic of the region. The white-winged guan of Southern Ecuador and extreme northern Peru is seriously threatened with extinction. Urbanization, hunting (large birds and mammals), and deforestation, especially mangroves are threats. Ecuador's coastal forests are only 2 percent of their original area consequently species presence continue to decline. Text and image extracted from:

Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena

Tropical Andes Greatest biodiversity on Earth
Contain about 1/6 of all plant spp in <1% of earth's surface Species with unusual life histories e.g Andean bromelilad 100 yrs to mature. The threatened yellow-eared parrot, yellow-tailed woolly monkey and spectacled bear are all endemic. Most species region for amphibians in the world (664 spp), 450 of which are on the 2004 IUCN Red List. A quarter of its habitat still remains, threats include: mining, timber extraction, oil exploration, and narcotics plantations, hydroelectric dams, cattle ranching and invasive species. Text and image extracted from:

Tropical Andes Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 1,542,644

Caucasus Includes desert, savanna, arid woodland, and forests biomes
High levels of endemic plant species. Mountainous landscapes have two species of highly threatened Caucasian turs (mountain goats). Political turmoil provides lack of governmental regulation. Forest clearing for fuel wood, illegal hunting and plant collecting are serious threats The intact areas only really exist in the higher mountain regions The plains experiencing the greatest levels of destruction. Text and image extracted from:

Caucasus Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 532,658
Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 143,818 Endemic Plant Species 1,600 Endemic Threatened Birds Endemic Threatened Mammals 2 Endemic Threatened Amphibians Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) 68 Area Protected (km 2) 42,721 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 35,538 Table extracted from:

Irano-Anatolian Forms a natural Mountain barrier between the Mediterranean Basin and the dry plateaus of Western Asia. Consists of mountains and interior basins. Contain many centers of local endemism. Nearly 400 plant species are found only along the Anatolian Diagonal, a floristic line that crosses Inner Anatolia. Many of Turkey's 1,200 endemic species occur only to the immediate east or west of the divide. The hotspot includes four endemic and threatened species of viper. Text and image extracted from:

Irano-Anatolian Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 899,773
Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 134,966 Endemic Plant Species 2,500 Endemic Threatened Birds Endemic Threatened Mammals 3 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 2 Extinct Speciesâ? Human Population Density (people/km 2) 58 Area Protected (km 2) 56,193 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 25,783 Table extracted from:

Mediterranean Basin The flora include 22, endemic vascular plant species (4 x more in the rest of Europe. Includes many endemic reptile species. Threatened species are increasingly confined to fragmented and isolated patches due to tourism/resort developments The Mediterranean monk-seal, the barbary macaque and the Iberian lynx, which is Critically Endangered, are among the region's most threatened species. Text and image extracted from:

Mediterranean Basin Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 2,085,292

Mountains of Central Asia
Comprising two of Asia's major mountain ranges, Known to early Persians as the "roof of the world." The hotspot's ecosystems include glaciers to deserts Include a highly threatened type of walnut-fruit forest, that contains ancestors of domestic fruit varieties (storehouse of genetic diversity). The hotspot is also home to a rich variety of ungulates, including the threatened argali wild sheep. Text and image extracted from:

Mountains of Central Asia
Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 863,362 Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 172,672 Endemic Plant Species 1,500 Endemic Threatened Birds Endemic Threatened Mammals 3 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 1 Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) 42 Area Protected (km 2) 59,563 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 58,605 Table extracted from:

Cape Floristic Region Evergreen fire-dependent shrublands characterize the landscape One of the world's five Mediterranean hotspots. Home to the greatest non-tropical concentration of higher plant species in the world, Only hotspot that encompasses an entire floral kingdom, and holds five of South Africa's 12 endemic plant families and 160 endemic genera. The geometric tortoise, the Cape sugar-bird, and a number of antelope species are characteristic species. Text and image extracted from:

Cape Floristic Region Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 78,555
Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 15,711 Endemic Plant Species 6,210 Endemic Threatened Birds Endemic Threatened Mammals 1 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 7 Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) 51 Area Protected (km 2) 10,859 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 10,154 Table extracted from:

Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa
Small and fragmented, these forest high levels of biodiversity. 40,000 cultivated varieties of African violet, (US $100 million global trade) are derived from a few species of this hotspot Include a variety of primate species and three endemic and highly threatened monkey and two endemic bushbaby spp . The Tana River has two critically threatened and endemic primates, the Tana River red colobus and the Tana River mangabey. Agricultural expansion is the biggest threat. Poor soils, increasing populations, subsistence agriculture and commercial farming consume increasing amounts of natural habitat. Text and image extracted from:

Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa

Eastern Afromontane This hotspot is distributed along the eastern edge of Africa, from Saudi Arabia in the north to Zimbabwe Although fragmented, all patches have a similar flora. The Albertine Rift harbors more endemic mammals, birds, and amphib ians than any other African region. A complex geological history has resulted in the formation of a series of unique freshwater lakes of immense fish diversity (e.g. 617 endemic fish species). Threats include agriculture, (bananas, beans, and tea) and the growing bushmeat “industry” Text and image extracted from:

Eastern Afromontane Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 1,017,806

Guinean Forests of West Africa
The lowland forests of West Africa are home to more than a quarter of Africa's mammals, including more than 20 spp of primates. Logging, mining, hunting and human population growth are placing extreme stress on the forests, however, threatening species such as the Jentink's duiker, pygmy hippopotamus, and scattered populations of western chimpanzees. Five Endemic Bird Areas lie partly or entirely within the hotspot. Text and image extracted from:

Guinean Forests of West Africa

Horn of Africa Known for its biological diversity for thousands of years. One of only two hotspots that is entirely arid Possesses endemic, threatened antelope, such as the beira, the dibatag, and Speke‘s gazelle. Has more endemic reptiles than any other region in Africa. Endemics include Somali wild ass and sacred baboon. Is one of the most degraded hotspots with only five percent of its original habitat remaining. Overgrazing and charcoal harvesting are destructive forces, but a lack of government control is problematic. Text and image extracted from:

Horn of Africa Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 1,659,363
Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 82,968 Endemic Plant Species 2,750 Endemic Threatened Birds 9 Endemic Threatened Mammals 8 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 1 Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) 23 Area Protected (km 2) 145,322 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 51,229 Table extracted from:

Madagascar & Indian Ocean Islands
High endemism with eight plant, four bird, and five primate families. Madagascar's more than 50 lemur spp. are biodiversity highlights. A further 15 species are extinct due to human influence. Contain a number of Critically Endangered bird species. The Seychelles possess the only endemic family of amphibians: the Sooglossidae The Aldabra giant tortoise, is a well known endemic. Text and image extracted from:

Madagascar & Indian Ocean Islands

Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany
Found along the east coast of southern Africa below the Great Escarpment. An important center of plant endemism. Possess nearly 600 tree species (highest of any temperate forest). Bird-of-paradise flower is a distinctive hotspot endemic. Southern subspecies of white rhinoceros rescued from extinction is a well known African conservation success. Much of the once expansive grasslands and forests where the large mammals occur is threatened from industrial and local farming. Text and image extracted from:

Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany
Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 274,136 Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 67,163 Endemic Plant Species 1,900 Endemic Threatened Birds Endemic Threatened Mammals 2 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 6 Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) 70 Area Protected (km 2) 23,051 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 20,322 Table extracted from:

Succulent Karoo Occurs in South Africa and Namibia
World's richest succulent flora Exceptionally high levels of plant endemism (69%) with some unique forms like the tree-like succulent called halfmens, and Aloes with tree growth forms (Aloe pillansi) Reptiles have high levels of endemism (lizards and especially tortoises) One of only two entirely arid ecosystems with hotspot status Grazing, agriculture and mining, especially for diamonds and heavy metals, threaten this fragile hotspot. Low population densities are some mitigation Text and image extracted from:

Succulent Karoo Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 102,691
Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 29,780 Endemic Plant Species 2,439 Endemic Threatened Birds Endemic Threatened Mammals 1 Endemic Threatened Amphibians Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) 4 Area Protected (km 2) 2,567 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 1,890 Table extracted from:

East Melanesian Islands
Once largely intact, the 1,600 East Melanesian Islands are now a hotspot, due, sadly, to accelerating levels of habitat loss, which has been caused chiefly by excessive logging, mining, and unsustainable farming practices. The region is one of the most geographically complex areas on Earth. Isolation and adaptive radiation have led to very high levels of endemism, both within the whole hotspot and on single islands. Notable endemic species include the majestic Solomons sea-eagle and more than a dozen threatened species of flying fox. The islands also harbor a diverse group of vascular plants species, including 3,000 endemics. Text and image extracted from:

East Melanesian Islands
Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 99,384 Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 29,815 Endemic Plant Species 3,000 Endemic Threatened Birds 33 Endemic Threatened Mammals 20 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 5 Extinct Species 6 Human Population Density (people/km 2) 13 Area Protected (km 2) 5,677 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* Table extracted from:

Himalaya Contains the world's highest mountains, including Mt Everest. These rise abruptly, resulting in a diversity of ecosystems that range from alluvial grasslands and subtropical broadleaf forests to alpine meadows above the tree line. Vascular plants have even been recorded at more than 6,000 meters. The hotspot is home to important populations of numerous large birds and mammals, including vultures, tigers, elephants, rhinos and wild water buffalo. Text and image extracted from:

Himalaya Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 741,706
Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 185,427 Endemic Plant Species 3,160 Endemic Threatened Birds 8 Endemic Threatened Mammals 4 Endemic Threatened Amphibians Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) 123 Area Protected (km 2) 112,578 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 77,739 Table extracted from:

Indo-Burma Includes more than 2 million km² of tropical Asia, Indo-Burma and its biodiversity is still to bediscovered. Six large mammal species have been discovered in the last 12 years: large-antlered muntjac, Annamite muntjac, grey-shanked douc, Annamite striped rabbit, leaf deer, and saola. Contains many endemism freshwater turtle species, most of which are threatened with extinction, due to over-harvesting and habitat loss. Diverse avian biodiversity (1,300 spp.) including the threatened white-eared night-heron, grey-crowned crocias, and the orange-necked partridge. Text and image extracted from:

Indo-Burma Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 2,373,057

Japan (Island Archipelago)
These islands stretch from the humid subtropics in the south to the boreal zone in the north Include a wide variety of climates and ecosystems. A quarter of the vertebrate species in this hotspot are endemic, including the Critically Endangered Okinawa woodpecker and the Japanese macaque (Snow Monkeys) Exceptionally high diversity of amphibians three-quarters of which are endemic Urban development, invasive alien species such as the Indian grey mongoose, the Siberian weasel, and the large mouthed bass threaten local biodiversity. Text and image extracted from:

Japan (Island Archipelago)

Mountains of Southwest China
Great variations in climate and topography, this Mountainous habitats has the most endemic rich temperate flora in the world. The golden monkey, giant panda, red panda, and a number of pheasants are threatened endemics. Illegal hunting, overgrazing and firewood collection are primary threats to biodiversity The construction of the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River is the largest ever and has impacted and will continue to heavily threaten this hotspot’s biodiversity. Text and image extracted from:

Mountains of Southwest China
Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 262,446 Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 20,996 Endemic Plant Species 3,500 Endemic Threatened Birds 2 Endemic Threatened Mammals 3 Endemic Threatened Amphibians Extinct Species Human Population Density (people/km 2) 32 Area Protected (km 2) 14,034 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 4,273 Table extracted from:

New Caledonia Only the size of New Jersey this South Pacific island includes five endemic plant families. It possess the world's only parasitic conifer and nearly two-thirds off the world's species of Araucaria trees, all of which are endemic. Nickel mining, forest destruction and invasive species threaten native fauna such as the kagu, an Endangered bird with a distinctive crest that is the only surviving member of its family. Text and image extracted from:

New Caledonia Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 18,972
Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 5,122 Endemic Plant Species 2,432 Endemic Threatened Birds 7 Endemic Threatened Mammals 3 Endemic Threatened Amphibians Extinct Species 1 Human Population Density (people/km 2) 11 Area Protected (km 2) 4,192 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 497 Table extracted from:

New Zealand A mountainous archipelago dominated by temperate rainforests. Fauna is mostly endemic e.g. kiwi. Mammals (2 bat spp.), amphibians, and reptiles all endemic. Within 700 years of being occupied by humans 50 bird spp. have become extinct. Invasive species is the most serious threat to the flora and fauna. Habitat destruction, through deforestation and wetland drainage, is also a key problem. Text and image extracted from:

New Zealand Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 270,197

Philippines An archipelago of more than islands of immense biodiversity Endemic species restricted to forest fragments with only 7% remaining. Has over 6,000 plant species and many birds species e.g. Cebu flower pecker, Philippine cockatoo, Visayan wrinkled hornbill, and huge Philippine eagle. Amphibian endemism unusually high with unique species e.g. panther flying frog. One of the most endangered areas. Historically logged for timber products, forests now being cleared for farming needs and developments. Text and image extracted from:

Philippines Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 297,179

Polynesia-Micronesia
Comprising 4,500 islands stretched across the southern Pacific Ocean. Is the epicenter of the current global extinction crisis. Within 200 years of the first Europeans 25 bird species have gone extinct Extinctions due to introduced invasive species and over-hunting. The spectacular endemic honeycreepers and other forest birds of the Hawaiian Islands are especially seriously threatened. Text and image extracted from:

Polynesia-Micronesia

Southwest Australia This hot spot includes forest, wood lands, shrublands, and heaths characterized by high plant and reptile endemism. Numbat, honey possum, and the red capped parrot are unique vertebrate species. Due to dry and hot conditions the western swamp turtle hibernates for two-thirds of year and may be the world’s most threatened freshwater turtle species, conservation efforts are improving the situation. habitat loss through agricultural expansion, accentuated by extensive fertilizer use contribute to declining biodiversity Invasive alien species (foxes and cats) threaten native fauna. Text and image extracted from:

Southwest Australia Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 356,717
Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 107,015 Endemic Plant Species 2,948 Endemic Threatened Birds 3 Endemic Threatened Mammals 6 Endemic Threatened Amphibians Extinct Species 2 Human Population Density (people/km 2) 5 Area Protected (km 2) 38,379 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV* 38,258 Table extracted from:

Sundaland The spectacular flora of this hotspot are succumbing to the growth of industrial forestry and international animal trade that claims tigers, monkeys, and turtle species for food and medicine in other countries. Populations of the orangutan, found only in this hotspot, are in dramatic decline. The last refuges of two Southeast Asia rhino species are also found on the islands of Java and Sumatra. Forest use for rubber, oil palm, and pulp production are detrimental forces facing biodiversity in the hotspot. Text and image extracted from:

Sundaland Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 1,501,063

Wallacea The flora and fauna of Wallacea are so varied that every island in this hotspot needs protection The hotspot is second only to the Tropical Andes in terms of bird endemism despite its relatively small land area. The world's largest lizard, the Komodo dragon, is restricted to the islands of Komodo, Padar, Rinca, and Flores. Forests are being cleared at increasing rates due to escalating populations. Deforestation was caused by the government sponsored program, which moved people from overcrowded islands to remote, sparsely inhabited one. Text and image extracted from:

Wallacea Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 338,494

Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
Population pressure on forests due to demands for timber/agricultural land. In Sri Lanka, only 1.5 percent of the original forest remains. Remaining forests are heavily fragmented. Edges of protected areas have illegal activities of farmers, loggers, and poachers. Annual monsoons with high mountain regions, contribute to numerous plant, reptile, and amphibian endemics. Sir Lanka alone may have as many as 140 endemic species of amphibians. Contains populations of Asian elephants, Indian tigers, and the Endangered lion-tailed macaques . Freshwater fish endemism is extremely high as well, with over 140 native species. Text and image extracted from:

Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 189,611 Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 43,611 Endemic Plant Species 3,049 Endemic Threatened Birds 10 Endemic Threatened Mammals 14 Endemic Threatened Amphibians 87 Extinct Species 20 Human Population Density (people/km 2) 261 Area Protected (km 2) 26,130 Area Protected (km 2) in Categories I-IV 21,259 Table extracted from:

Biomes, eco-regions and biodiversity hotspots

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Biomes, eco-regions and biodiversity hotspots

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