1. Group Behavior and Influence
CHAPTER 8
Group Behavior and Influence

2. What is a group?
A group is a collection of two or more individuals who:
interact together
share common goals
see themselves as a group (group identification)
Group identification is important
It gives us a sense of identity
It can affect our motivation

3. Motivation in groups: social loafing
Social loafing in the context of additive tasks
When do we loaf the most? (task interest, value, choice; knowledge of other group members; size and gender composition of group; cultural context
Why do we loaf? (identifiability; perception that one’s contributions are not rewarded, not needed, and/or are too costly)
Karau and Williams’ collective effort model
Counteracting social loafing (increased accountability, task perceived as unique or challenging, group pride, external rewards, social compensation)

4. Social loafing on an additive task

5. The Ringelmann effect: As the number of people in the group increases, so does social loafing

6. Motivation in groups: social loafing
Social loafing in the context of additive tasks
When do we loaf the most? (task interest, value, choice; knowledge of other group members; size and gender composition of group; cultural context
Why do we loaf? (identifiability; perception that one’s contributions are not rewarded, not needed, and/or are too costly)
Karau and Williams’ collective effort model
Counteracting social loafing (increased accountability, task perceived as unique or challenging, group pride, external rewards, social compensation)

7. Karau and Williams’ collective effort model

8. Social loafing: some ways to overcome it
Factors that increase loafing
Lack of identifiability
No individual evaluation
No individual or group
standards of evaluation
Task is easy, boring, or the
same as others’
Individual contributions are
not necessary
No individual or group incentives
Large group
Unfamiliar group
Factors that reduce loafing
Individual identifiability
Individual or group evaluation
Individual or group standards
of evaluation
Task is difficult, interesting, or
different from others’
Individual contributions are
essential
Individual or group incentives
Small group
Familiar group

9. Motivation in groups: social facilitation
Arousal model: if the dominant responses are correct, performance is enhanced; if the dominant responses are incorrect, performance is impaired
Simple versus complex tasks
Well-learned versus poorly learned tasks
Evaluation model: evaluation can create evaluation apprehension and also serve as source of distraction
Distraction model: the need to monitor other people and what they are doing

10. The arousal model

11. Zajonc’s cockroach experiment

12. Brainstorming: creativity in groups (Osborn, 1953)
Four basic rules of brainstorming (feel free to express all ideas; generate as many as possible; build on other people’s ideas; and don’t criticize them)
Factors that inhibit brainstorming (using the “nominal group” as a control):
Evaluative concern
Free riding (social loafing)
Blocking (production blocking)
Downward social comparison
Illusion of group productivity

13. Production blocking

15. Brainstorming: creativity in groups
Improving group brainstorming
Prior practice with brainstorming
Nominal group technique
Brainwriting
Synectics (divergent thinking: spectrum policy, fantasy, metaphors, analogies, etc.)
Electronic brainstorming: stages of idea generation, organization, ranking, and ideas for implementation
Use of small groups or pairs
Use of certain personality types (low social anxiety)

16. Better brainstorming: some techniques
First practice with group brainstorming
Alternate individual and group brainstorming
Use spectrum policy‒look at all sides of the issue
Use small groups or pairs
Create diverse groups with a variety of perspectives, talents, and knowledge bases
Give the groups some goals for which to aim
Use group brainstorming with less socially anxious individuals
Use electronic brainstorming or brainwriting

17. Group decision making Major pitfalls Group polarization
Disorganization (nonoptimal approach)
Common knowledge effect
Strength in numbers effect‒the decision tends to go in the direction of the largest subgroup with a consensus
Group polarization
Affected by normative and informational influence
Momentum toward the already favored position
Extremist versus mixed groups
Self-selection bias favoring homogeneous groups

18. Group decision making Information biases in groups Sampling bias
Instruct members to mention only items that have not already been shared: homogeneity of the group
Have groups rank the various alternatives, rather than simply choosing the apparently “best” one
Inform the group about the unique areas of expertise of particular group members
Directive versus participative group leaders
Repeating shared knowledge more than unshared knowledge during the group discussion (the “common knowledge effect”)

19. Counteracting the common-knowledge effect and the sampling bias
Force group members to mention only unique information
Rank alternatives
Identify expertise
Include confident experts
Include directive leaders? (pros and cons)

21. Group decision making Groupthink: defective decision-making in groups
Concurrence seeking: group cohesiveness, insularity, lack of checks, pre-determined outcome, pressure for decision
Symptoms of groupthink: direct pressure, pressure to uniformity, self-censorship, mindguards, illusion of unanimity, misperception, rationalization
Defective decision making: poor information search, incomplete survey of alternatives and objectives, information processed in a biased fashion, failure to re-appraise, no contingency plan(s)

22. The phenomenon of groupthink

23. Groupthink: some major symptoms
Symptoms of Groupthink
Illusion of invulnerability
Collective rationalization
Belief in the morality of the group
Stereotyping of outgroups
Direct pressure on dissenters
Self-censorship
Illusion of unanimity
Mindguards
Symptoms of defective
decision-making
Incomplete survey of alternatives
Incomplete survey of objectives
Failure to examine the risks of the favored alternative
Poor information search
Selective bias in processing available information
Failure to reassess alternatives
Failure to work out contingency plans

24. Group decision making Groupthink: defective decision-making in groups
Avoiding groupthink: rules for good decision-making (Table 8.5)
Teamwork and groupthink: problems of self-management (Table 8.6)
Develop effective decision-making norms and practices
Increase interaction with new or outside members
Train self-leadership skills
Select team members with a desire for independence

25. Rules for good decision-making
Set a good decision-making goal
Organize the procedures for decision-making
Do a systematic search for the information held by group members
Make group members accountable for sharing the information needed to make a good decision
Have a diversity of views and expertise represented in the group
Use second-chance meetings to re-evaluate the decision