1. Understanding Crime and Victimization
Chapter Three
Understanding Crime and Victimization

2. Learning Objectives
Ascertain why some experts believe that crime seems rational
Classify the strategies used to reduce crime by rational criminals
Identify the various biological traits linked to crime
Describe the various psychological views of the cause of crime
Identify the personality traits linked to crime

3. Learning Objectives
Compare and contrast the various social structure theories of crime
Distinguish among the three types of social process theories
Explain what is meant by critical criminology
Discuss the basics of developmental theory
Identify the various theories of victimization

4. Thinking Point
Despite years of study and research, crime experts are not certain what drives specific people to commit crime. The media however, is full of speculation regarding the factors that promote crime, and what “makes a criminal.” Crime is a topic on which many people think they are an expert.
What factors are suggested by the media as leading to crime?
If you asked friends and family, what would they say leads to crime?
As a student of criminology, do you agree that these factors lead to crime?

5. The Cause of Crime
Criminologists are social scientists who use the scientific method to study the nature, extent, cause, and control of criminal behavior
Learning Objective 1

6. Choice Theory
People choose to commit crime after weighing the potential benefits and consequences of their criminal act
People will commit a crime if they believe it will provide immediate benefits without the threat of long-term risks
If the rewards are great, the perceived risks small, and the excitement high, the likelihood of committing additional crimes increases
Learning Objective 1

7. Choice Theory
Crime is a matter of rational choice, involving a calculated decision made after a motivated offender weighs the potential costs and benefits of illegal activity
The decision to commit a specific crime is a matter of personal decision based on the evaluation of available information
Learning Objective 1
Actress Lindsay Lohan (left) sits in a Los Angeles court with her lawyer, Shawn Chapman Holley, during a compliance check to report her progress on 480 hours of community service for shoplifting a necklace from a Venice jeweler. Did Lindsay, who has had a long history of run-ins with the law, choose to commit a crime? If not, how else can we explain her behavior? A repentant Lindsay told an interviewer, “I’ve learned how to live my life in a way that I’m happy and can do the things I want to do,” a statement that indicates a rational approach to decision making.

8. Situational Crime Prevention
Increase the effort needed to commit the crime
Increase the risks of committing the crime
Reduce the rewards for committing the crime
Induce shame or guilt
Reduce provocation
Remove excuses
Learning Objective 2

9. General Deterrence
If crime is a matter of choice, it follows that it can be controlled by convincing criminals that breaking the law is a bad or dangerous choice to make
General deterrence is designed to make potential criminals fear the consequences of crime
Learning Objective 2

10. Specific Deterrence
Specific deterrence strategies punish known criminals so severely that they will never be tempted to repeat their offenses
Problems with these strategies are that criminals do not fear punishment, and the certainty of arrest and punishment is low
Techniques include death penalty, mandatory sentences, and aggressive policing
Learning Objective 2

11. Trait Theories
Crime is caused by inherited and uncontrollable biological and psychological traits
People may develop physical or mental traits at birth or shortly afterward that affect their social functioning over their life course
Learning Objective 3

12. Biochemical Factors
Focus on the influence of biochemical factors on criminal behavior
Environmental contaminants
Food products and diet
Hypoglycemia
Hormones
Learning Objective 3

13. Neurological Factors
Some researchers suspect that the cause of abnormal neurological function is impairment in neurotransmitters, which are chemical compounds that influence or activate brain functions
The presence of brain abnormality causes irrational and destructive behaviors
Research shows that youths with ADHD who grow up in a dysfunctional family are the most vulnerable to chronic delinquency that continues into their adulthood
Learning Objective 3

14. Thinking Point
This scan compares a normal brain (left) and the brain of an individual with ADHD (right). The areas of orange and white demonstrate a higher rate of metabolism; the areas of blue and green represent an abnormally low metabolic rate. Some experts believe our immigrant forebears were risk-takers who impulsively left their homelands for a life in the new world. They may have brought with them a genetic predisposition to ADHD.
Why do you think ADHD is so prevalent in the U.S. today?
Do you think we can reliability predict
criminal involvement with brain scans?
Learning Objective 3

15. Genetic Factors
Modern bio-criminologists are concerned with the role of heredity in producing crime-prone individuals
Learning Objective 3

16. Psychological Theories
Psychological theories suggest that criminals may be suffering from a psychological abnormality or stress that has a long history
Poor (negative) environment can lead to disturbed personality & social behavior.
Not knowing right from wrong
Lack of control over impulses
Criminal families
Lack of empathy
Learning Objective 4

17. Behavioral Theory
View behavior as learned through interactions with others; either directly from those in close proximity or indirectly from the media
Behavior that is rewarded becomes habitual
Behavior that is punished becomes extinguished
Learning Objective 4

18. Cognitive Theory
Concerned with the way people perceive and mentally represent the world in which they live
Learning Objective 4

19. Thinking Point
An antisocial personality is one characterized by a lack of warmth and feeling, inappropriate behavioral responses, and an inability to learn from experience. This personality is also referred to as a sociopath or psychopath.
Choose a serial killer of the past decade and recall his/her crimes. Do you believe this individual is a sociopath? Why or why not?
Which theory do you believe best explains his/her behavior?
Learning Objective 5

20. Personality and Crime
Some psychologists view criminal behavior as a function of a disturbed personality structure
Antisocial personality
Failure to conform to social norms
Deceitfulness
Impulsivity
Irritability
Disregard for safety
Irresponsibility
Lack of remorse
Learning Objective 5

21. Thinking Point
Crime shows on television, such as Law & Order and Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, routinely characterize the offenders as “psychologically” problematic.
Recall a recent crime show you have watched and think about the theory that was implied. How was the offender understood by law enforcement?
What types of personality traits were conveyed?
Learning Objective 5

22. IQ and Crime
Studies link low IQ to violent & aggressive behavior, however there are problems with these studies
The link between intelligence and crime is one of the most enduring controversies in the psychology of crime literature
Learning Objective 4

23. Sociological Theories
Place emphasis on environmental conditions
Equate the cause of criminal behavior with social factors, such as poverty and unemployment
Learning Objective 6

24. Social Structure Theory
Suggest that people’s place in the socioeconomic structure influences their chances of becoming a criminal
Poor individual’s are more likely to commit crimes because they are unable to achieve monetary or social success in any other way
Racial disparity - The problems of lower-class culture are particularly acute for racial and ethnic minorities
Learning Objective 6

25. The Disorganized Neighborhood
The effects of income inequality, poverty, racism, and despair are a key cause of youth crime and drug abuse
These neighborhoods lack collective efficacy
Disorganized neighborhoods may possess deviant values and cultures, and strain as legitimate avenues for success are all but closed
Learning Objective 6

26. Social Process Theories
Social Learning Theory
Suggests that people learn the techniques and attitudes of crime from close relationships with criminal peers
Social Control Theory
Maintains that everyone has the potential to become a criminal but that most people are controlled by their bonds to society; crime occurs when the forces that bind people to society are weakened or broken
Learning Objective 7

27. Social Process Theories
Social Reaction/Labeling Theory
Suggests that people become criminals when significant members of society label them as such and they accept those labels as a personal identity
Learning Objective 7

28. Critical Criminology Crime in any society is caused by class conflict
Laws are created by those in power to protect their rights and interests
State-Organized Crime
Criminal acts committed by state officials in pursuit of their jobs as government representatives
Learning Objective 8

29. Developmental Theories
Life course theories suggest that events take place over the life course to influence criminal choices
The causes of crime constantly change as people mature
At first the nuclear family influences behavior
In adolescence, the peer group dominates
In adulthood, marriage and career are critical
Learning Objective 9

30. Latent Trait Theory
The view that human behavior is controlled by a master trait, present at birth or soon after, that influences and directs behavior
General Theory of Crime
Individual differences in the tendency to commit criminal acts can be found in a person’s level of self-control
Learning Objective 9

31. Life Course Theory
Learning Objective 9
FIGURE 3.3 Life Course Theory

32. Life Course Theory
The view that criminality is a dynamic process influenced by people’s perceptions and experiences throughout their lives, which may change their behavior for the better or worse
Age-Graded Theory
Turning points in the criminal career are life events that enable people to “knife-off” from a criminal career path into a conventional lifestyle
Learning Objective 9

33. Trajectory Theory
Combines elements of latent trait and life course theory
Adolescent-Limited and Life-Course Persistent Offenders
Adolescent-limited offenders are typical teenagers whose misbehavior ends when they enter adulthood
Life-course persisters are delinquents who begin their offending career at a very early age and continue to offend well into adulthood
Learning Objective 9

34. Theories of Victimization
Victim precipitation theory examines the role of the victim in the criminal incident
Lifestyle theory suggests that some people may become crime victims because their lifestyle increases their exposure to offenders
Routine activities theory is the view that crime is a product of motivated offenders, suitable targets, and a lack of capable guardians
Learning Objective 10

35. Thinking Point Consider the offense of sexual assault.
Which theory of victimization would you use to explain this type of crime.
How might victim precipitation theory lead to blaming the victim?
Could lifestyle theory lead to blaming the victim?
How could routine activities theory be useful to explain sexual assault?
Learning Objective 10