1. HOW TO WRITE A SCIENTIFIC PAPER
Walter A. Zin, MD, DSc
Laboratory of Respiration Physiology
Carlos Chagas Filho Institute of Biophysics
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro

2. What is a Scientific Paper ?
A scientific paper is a written and published report describing original research results

3. Writing a Research Paper
No single best way
Varies from paper to paper
Wait till data analyzed
Background reading
not too extensive
make notes; make notes of notes
write down sentences or parts of them
not during “writing time”

4. Whom Writing For? To please yourself?
Referees - to persuade the toughest one
Journal
- Choose before writing
- General vs. subespecialty journal

5. Whom Writing For? Strategies to choose the journal:
Where many of the papers cited were published?
Where do cited scientists publish their work?
Read the avertising statements of journals
Read the “scope” paragraph in the “I for A”
Read the table of contents of potential journals
Examine several articles in potential journals

6. Sequence Fix realistic schedule (moderate) Decision is final
Adherence foresees a good outcome
Figures, tracings, tables
Methods and Results
Discussion and Introduction
Abstract and Title

7. Structure
A good article has a definite structure, makes its point, and does not was space and time
The most difficult part in writing a scientific paper is planning its structure

8. Structure Biggest problems come first
A scaffold of headings and subheadings
IMRAD: each on a separate sheet
- In the first draft: random order, telegraphic style
- Afterwards: the ideas must be numbered and an order generated

9. Subheadings Signposts to reader Every paragraph in early drafts
Final version: never over single paragraph
Hierarchy of sub-subs
Max of 3 for typographical distinction

10. Writing Tools Dictionary, well-thumbed Thesaurus
Synonyms, shades of meaning
Check every word
Pencil, pen, computer
Paper bin

11. Methods Section
Enough information for an experienced investigator to repeat your work
Avoid tiresome detail
Cut-and-paste from previous work of the author(s), not somebody else’s
It is the first section of the paper in which subheadings should be used

12. Results Section Refer to data (Fig. X, Table Y)
Don’t repeat numbers in Tables
Can state numbers from Figures if precision is required
A lot of numbers, make Table

13. Introduction 2-3 paragraphs, <450 words First paragraph
Introduce broad area
Second paragraph
Explicit rationale
• Last paragraph
- Hypothesis

14. Discussion Section First paragraph State major findings
Paraphrase abstract
Last paragraph
“In summary…” (2-3 sentences)
“In conclusion…” (biggest mensage, return to Intro, avoid speculation, avoid “need more work”

15. Discussion Section Middle paragraphs Base each on a major result
Always focus on your results
Never discuss prior work without reference to your work
Refer Tables and Figures

16. Abstract Précis writing Informative, not descriptive
Some numbers, but not in excess
Determines if paper will be read
Is distributed freely in databases

17. Title Max info in least words <12 words <100 characters
The title is a label
Should almost never contain abbreviations
Question: easier to understand, more impact
State results

18. Figures Do before writing Redraw, redraw, prune clutter
Least non-data-ink
Max 4 lines, all solid
No caption
Reduce to 1 column in journal
Reduced xerox copy to check out
Original should be <3x final

19. Figures Axes Minimize tick marks Don’t number each tick Lettering
Uniform, lower case
Minimize, avoid bold
After reduction, 2-3 mm high
Legend
Gives message

20. Tables Single unit, understood without text
Prune, prune: columns, lines
Exceed 1 sheet: redraw
Avoid narrow/broad; rotate all 90o
No added vertical/horizontal lines
If small: move data to text

21. Of Writing At assigned time: write (not read) Don’t wait for the muses
A craft, not an art: practice
Ideas come while writing
Read good writers, especially non-medical

22. Momentum Fix a schedule Monitor progress Write by a biological clock
One page a week: torture
Skip trouble spots
Writer’s block: unacceptable

23. Concentration Need stretch of several hours
When time is short: prepare, revise
Avoid distractions: phone, beeper
Location
- Very boring area
- Nothing to distract

24. First Draft Write as quickly as possible As if thinking out loud
Get everything down
Ignore spelling, grammar, style
Skip troublesome words
Correct and rewrite only when the whole text is on paper
Do not split the manuscript among the co-authors

25. Good Writing Content, accuracy Clarity Precision Logic
Order of presentation

26. Clarity Clear Exact Ambiguity, inconsistency Concise Least words
Wooly words
Concise
Least words
Short words
One word vs many

27. Simplify a majority of = most at the present time = now
give rise to = cause
in some cases = sometimes
is defined as = is
it is believed that = I think
on the basis of = by
pooled together = pooled
subsequent to = after
with the result that = so that

28. Use and Misuse of English
Tense
Previously published work: present tense
Your own work: past tense
Voice
Active more precise and less wordy than passive
Name the agent, even “I” or “we”
Singulars and plurals

29. Use and Misuse of English
Punctuation
Hyphens
Pile-ups of nouns or phrases
Numbers

30. Bad Writing Words don’t do justice to your ideas
If multiple mistakes in spelling and syntax, reviewer suspects similar sloppiness in the lab

31. Style Clear, orderly presentation Reads comfortably
Science vs literature

32. Writing Reshape, refine, tighten up
Juggle words, change sentences around
Strengthen transition between sentences
Check narrative flow
After several drafts ask for a second opinion

33. Writing: Clutter All first drafs have too many words
Successive drafts: prune vigorously
Strip every sentence
Look for excessive adverbs, adjectives
Writing improves in proportion to deletion of unnecessary words

34. Writing: Abbreviations and Acronyms
Liked by authors, hated by readers
Reading should not require a glossary
Unwieldy word occurring > 10 times

35. Writing: Sentences Only one idea in a sentence
Keep short: <20 words
Vary length
Long sentences: greater risk of grammatical error

36. Writing: Paragraph The unit of thought in a group of sentences
Subheading over each one in early drafts
Not too long solid block of printing (<125 words)
Long paragraph: bad

37. Writing: Narrative Flow
Telling a story
Reader follows from start to end
Writing is sequential: logic is the glue
Sentences hold hands
Smooth transitions
Every step is inevitable

38. Rewriting Secret of writing is rewriting
Secret of rewriting is re-thinking

39. Typing Clean Wide margins (2.5 cm) On one side of the sheet only
Adherence to the style of the journal
Proofread, proofread, proofread

40. Authorship Decided as early as possible Should include persons who:
Can defend the intellectual content, including data and conclusions
Must be willing to concede publicly any errors
In the case of fraud be willing to state publicly the nature and extent, and account for its occurrence

41. Authorship: Criteria All the following criteria should be met:
Generate at least part of the intellectual content (conception or design, data analysis and interpretation)
Drafting, reviewing or revising critically for important intellectual content
Final approval of the version to be published

42. Authorship: Order Some journals use the alphabetical order
Most of them assume an order based on each author’s importance to the study
The first author is primarily responsible for collecting and analyzing data, and writing
The last one, an established investigator, assumes the overall responsibility for the study
The middle authors are listed according to their order of importance to the study

43. Authorship: Responsibilities
The authors must comply with the following rules when submitting the manuscript for publication:
The manuscript is not under consideration elsewhere and the research will not be submitted elsewhere until a final decision has been made by the journal
The manuscript is a trustful, original work without fabrication, fraud or plagiarism
The authors have made an important scientific contribution and are familiar with the primary data
The authors have read the manuscript and take responsibility for its content, and understand that if the paper, or part of it, is found to be faulty or fraudulent, they share responsibility

44. Authorship: Conflict of Interest
All funding sources supporting the work and all institutional or corporate affiliations of the authors must be acknowledged
The authors must certify that they have no commercial association that might pose a conflict of interest in connection with the submitted paper

45. Benefits of Writing Benefit greater to author than reader
Invaluable mental discipline
Enhances clear thinking
Making a subject intelligible to others means you understand it
Improve your reading skills
Satisfies a creative instinct