1. CHAPTER 29 The Search for Order (The Limits of Liberalism) 1973–1980
Copyright © 2014 by Bedford/St. Martin’s

2. 1. Who is the woman pictured in this image
1. Who is the woman pictured in this image? How is this picture of a “working woman” in 1979 different from one that might have appeared ten years earlier? (Answer: This photo features a young woman who works in a coal mine. The photo documents women’s new access to traditionally “male” jobs in the 1970s. A classic photo of a working woman from 1969 probably would have featured a nurse, teacher, librarian, secretary, flight attendant, or some other traditionally female occupation.)
2. What does the image tell us about the conditions endured by coal miners in the 1970s? (Answer: This 1979 coal mine looks much like a coal mine from the early twentieth century. The work takes place under ground. Miners descend through entries like the one behind the woman and spend the day mining coal. This photo was probably captured at the end of the workday because the worker and all of her equipment are filthy with coal dust.)
3. What can we glean from the photo about how this particular worker feels about her job?
(Answer: This woman is smiling, indicating that she is happy to have access to a job in the mine. Coal miners in the 1970s were typically unionized and received reasonably good wages and benefits. Many working-class women welcomed the opportunity to move into jobs that had traditionally been defined as male occupations.)

3. I. An Era of Limits
A. Energy Crisis 1. OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) formed in Before that, American and European companies dominated policy in the region. 2. Conflict in the Middle East Between 1967 and 1973, conflict arose between Israel and its Arab neighbors Egypt, Syria, and Jordan; in the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Egypt and Syria invaded Israel; Israel won with aid from the U.S.; OPEC declared an oil embargo against U.S. in October 1973; Congress created speed limit to conserve fuel; sales of American “gas guzzlers” fell, while sales of small cars increased (Toyotas, Volkswagens, and Datsuns/Nissans)
I. An Era of Limits (In the early 1970s, every major economic indicator turned negative: employment, productivity, and growth.)
A. Energy Crisis
1. OPEC – By the 1970s, U.S. was heavily dependent on oil imports from the Persian Gulf; American and European companies had discovered and developed the oil in the early 20th century; profit-sharing agreements existed between foreign companies and Persian Gulf nations; Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) formed in 1960.
2. Conflict in the Middle East – Between 1967 and 1973, conflict arose between Israel and its Arab neighbors Egypt, Syria, and Jordan; in the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Egypt and Syria invaded Israel; Israel won with aid from the U.S.; OPEC declared an oil embargo against U.S. in October 1973; Congress created speed limit to conserve fuel; sales of American “gas guzzlers” fell, while sales of small cars increased (Toyotas, Volkswagens, and Datsuns/Nissans). 3

5. I. An Era of Limits
B. Environmentalism 1. Environmental Protection Agency Congress passed the National Environmental Policy Act (1970), which created the EPA; a spate of new laws followed: Clean Air Act (1970), Occupational Health and Safety Act (1970), Water Pollution Control Act (1972), and Endangered Species Act (1973); while Time magazine wondered if the movement could unite the populace, environmentalism had become a divisive issue by the 1980s. 2. Nuclear Power Initially viewed as an alternative to coal and/or oil; environmentalists cautioned the catastrophic ramifications of a meltdown, including radioactive wastes; meltdown at Three Mile Island (Harrisburg, PA, March 1979) led to 100,000 people fleeing their homes.
I. An Era of Limits
B. Environmentalism
1. Environmental Protection Agency – Congress passed the National Environmental Policy Act (1970), which created the EPA; a spate of new laws followed: Clean Air Act (1970), Occupational Health and Safety Act (1970), Water Pollution Control Act (1972), and Endangered Species Act (1973); while Time magazine wondered if the movement could unite the populace, environmentalism had become a divisive issue by the 1980s.
2. Nuclear Power – Initially viewed as an alternative to coal and/or oil; environmentalists cautioned the catastrophic ramifications of a meltdown, including radioactive wastes; meltdown at Three Mile Island (Harrisburg, PA, March 1979) led to 100,000 people fleeing their homes.

7. I. An Era of Limits
C. Economic Transformation 1. Deindustrialization Combination of unemployment and inflation; prices rose in a stagnant economy; decline in standard of living for most Americans; income per worker fell 18 percent between 1973 and 1982; none of the three presidents in this period was able to successfully combat the problem; America’s industrial sector weakened; steel industry was hardest hit by competition from West Germany and Japan; formerly titanic steel companies began massive dismantling. 2. Organized Labor in Decline Blue-collar workers faced unemployment and fell below the middle class; number of strikes increased but with few results; union membership declined.
I. An Era of Limits
C. Economic Transformation
1. Deindustrialization – Combination of unemployment and inflation; prices rose in a stagnant economy; decline in standard of living for most Americans; income per worker fell 18 percent between 1973 and 1982; none of the three presidents in this period was able to successfully combat the problem; America’s industrial sector weakened; steel industry was hardest hit by competition from West Germany and Japan; formerly titanic steel companies began massive dismantling.
2. Organized Labor in Decline – Blue-collar workers faced unemployment and fell below the middle class; number of strikes increased but with few results; union membership declined.

9. 1. Describe this photograph—what is its subject
1. Describe this photograph—what is its subject? (Answer: This image captures the demolition of a Pittsburgh steel mill in Part of the mill remains standing and part lies in pieces. Workers stand amid the debris in the foreground.)
2. How does this photograph reflect the economic transformation of the 1980s? What message is the photographer aiming to convey with this image? (Answer: The photograph is a very direct representation of the weakening of the United States’ global economic dominance and the process of deindustrialization. The photographer captures the enormity of the mill, which in its heyday formed one of the major foundations of the U.S. economy. By photographing the decayed parts of the mill that are still standing, she points out its dated and outmoded elements, hinting at the reasons Asia and European steel manufacturers were able to surpass the United States using more modern manufacturing techniques. The destruction of the mill in the foreground represents the U.S. economy’s transition away from manufacturing and toward the provision of services.)
3. What does the image suggest about the relationship between deindustrialization and the urban crisis of the 1980s? (Answer: The photograph suggests how deindustrialization not only eliminated unionized working-class jobs, but also left huge unused and decaying structures in many urban areas. It is an excellent visual representation of the concept of the “rust belt” and the conditions faced by urban populations in the Northeast and Midwest in the 1980s and 1990s.)

11. I. An Era of Limits
D. Urban Crisis and Suburban Revolt 1. Urban crisis revisited the “urban crisis” of the 1960s spilled into the “era of limits”; nearly every major U.S. city faced economic hardship during the 1970s; New York fared the worst; federal government loaned the city of New York money, and banks provided a three-year moratorium on the city’s debt repayment; mayor was forced to cut services, freeze wages, and lay off workers. 2. Tax revolt and economic inequality Tax revolt: dramatic reversal of the postwar spirit of generous public investment; real estate prices and property tax rates increased dramatically; in California, the “Proposition 13” initiative rolled back property taxes, capped future increases, and required a two-thirds majority for all tax measures in the state legislature
I. An Era of Limits
D. Urban Crisis and Suburban Revolt
1. Urban crisis revisited – Middle-class flight out of the cities continued; the “urban crisis” of the 1960s spilled into the “era of limits”; nearly every major U.S. city faced economic hardship during the 1970s; New York fared the worst; federal government loaned the city of New York money, and banks provided a three-year moratorium on the city’s debt repayment; mayor was forced to cut services, freeze wages, and lay off workers; suburb-to-suburb commuting for work became increasingly common.
2. Tax revolt and economic inequality – Tax revolt: dramatic reversal of the postwar spirit of generous public investment; real estate prices and property tax rates increased dramatically; in California, the “Proposition 13” initiative rolled back property taxes, capped future increases, and required a two-thirds majority for all tax measures in the state legislature.

15. II. Politics in Flux, 1973–1980
A. Watergate and the Fall of a President Political Realignment In spite of Watergate, conservatism continued to gain popularity with the general public; political power was shifting toward the West and South; states with historically strong unions (NY, MI, IL) lost power with deindustrialization; CA, AZ, FL, and TX gained power.
II. Politics in Flux, 1973–1980
A. Watergate and the Fall of a President
1. Watergate Babies – President Gerald Ford pardoned Nixon, angering many Americans; 1974 midterm elections in November brought seventy-five new Democratic members to Congress; press called them “Watergate babies” because many were under the age of forty-five; eliminated HUAC, reduced the number of votes needed for a filibuster from 67 to 60, and passed Ethics in Government Act (1978) to force candidates to disclose financial contributions; post-Watergate reforms made government more transparent but also less efficient and more susceptible to special interests—the opposite of what had been intended.
2. Political Realignment – In spite of Watergate, conservatism continued to gain popularity with the general public; political power was shifting toward the West and South; states with historically strong unions (NY, MI, IL) lost power with deindustrialization; CA, AZ, FL, and TX gained power.

16. II. Politics in Flux, 1973–1980
B. Jimmy Carter: The Outsider as President
Former governor of Georgia; pledged to restore morality to the White House; won 50 percent of popular vote to Ford’s 48 percent; had poor relations with Congress; relied heavily on inexperienced advisors from Georgia; did not effectively manage economic problems; Iranian Revolution drove gas prices up and lowered Carter’s approval rating below 30 percent.
Much more successful outside of politics. Won the Nobel Peace Prize for all his global and local humanitarian efforts.
II. Politics in Flux, 1973–1980
B. Jimmy Carter: The Outsider as President (Former governor of Georgia; pledged to restore morality to the White House; won 50 percent of popular vote to Ford’s 48 percent; had poor relations with Congress; relied heavily on inexperienced advisors from Georgia; did not effectively manage economic problems; Iranian Revolution drove gas prices up and lowered Carter’s approval rating below 30 percent.)

18. III. Reform and Reaction in the 1970s
A. Civil Rights in a New Era 1. Affirmative Action Procedures designed to account for the historically disadvantaged position of minority groups (work, education); many white Americans felt such measures unfairly created a disadvantage for otherwise qualified whites; in 1978, Allan Bakke (white) sued University of California at Davis Medical School for rejecting him in favor of less-qualified minority candidates using a quota system; Supreme Court ruled in Bakke’s favor but indicated that a more flexible affirmative action program would be acceptable; California voters passed Proposition 209 in 1996, prohibiting public institutions from using affirmative action to increase diversity in employment and education.
III. Reform and Reaction in the 1970s
A. Civil Rights in a New Era
1. Affirmative Action – Procedures designed to account for the historically disadvantaged position of minority groups (work, education); many white Americans felt such measures unfairly created a disadvantage for otherwise qualified whites; in 1978, Allan Bakke (white) sued University of California at Davis Medical School for rejecting him in favor of less-qualified minority candidates using a quota system; Supreme Court ruled in Bakke’s favor but indicated that a more flexible affirmative action program would be acceptable; California voters passed Proposition 209 in 1996, prohibiting public institutions from using affirmative action to increase diversity in employment and education.

20. III. Reform and Reaction in the 1970s
B. The Women’s Movement and Gay Rights 1. Women’s Activism Early 1970s saw rise of women’s centers, and a feminist art and poetry movement; women challenged the admission polices of all-male colleges (Yale and Columbia); female scholars began to transform higher education by study of women’s history; publication of Our Bodies, Ourselves inspired a growing women’s health movement; founded anti-rape movement. 2. Equal Rights Amendment (would fail to pass in 1980’s) 3. Roe v. Wade Activists pursued legislative and judicial measure to gain abortion rights; 1973 ruling struck down a Texas law that prohibited abortion for any reason; now first-trimester abortions were legal; became an increasingly polarizing issue. 4. Harvey Milk Gay rights ordinances increased in American cities throughout the 1970s, as did conservative movement against gay rights; Milk ran as an openly gay candidate for city supervisor (council) in San Francisco; won passage of a gay rights ordinance in the city; was assassinated in 1978
III. Reform and Reaction in the 1970s
B. The Women’s Movement and Gay Rights
1. Women’s Activism – Early 1970s saw rise of women’s centers, women-run child care centers, and a feminist art and poetry movement; women challenged the admission polices of all-male colleges (Yale and Columbia); female scholars began to transform higher education by study of women’s history and by founding women’s studies programs; publication of Our Bodies, Ourselves inspired a growing women’s health movement; founded anti-rape movement.
2. Equal Rights Amendment – First introduced in 1923, the ERA stated, “Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on the basis of sex”; Phyllis Schlafly, lawyer and conservative activist, argued that ERA would create an unnatural “unisex society”; ERA failed.
3. Roe v. Wade – Activists pursued legislative and judicial measure to gain abortion rights; 1973 ruling struck down a Texas law that prohibited abortion for any reason; now first-trimester abortions were legal; became an increasingly polarizing issue.
4. Harvey Milk – Gay rights ordinances increased in American cities throughout the 1970s, as did conservative movement against gay rights; Milk ran as an openly gay candidate for city supervisor (council) in San Francisco; was twice unsuccessful before winning a seat in 1977; helped win passage of a gay rights ordinance in the city; was assassinated in 1978— along with the city’s mayor, George Moscone—by a disgruntled former supervisor named Dan White.

24. III. Reform and Reaction in the 1970s
C. After the Warren Court 1. The Burger Court New chief justice, Warren Burger; conservatives thought the Court would scale back liberal rulings, but it did not; instead remained centrist or confirmed previous liberal decisions; in 1986, the Court ruled that sexual harassment violated the Civil Rights Act; in a controversial 1986 case, the Court upheld a Georgia sodomy statute that criminalized same-sex sexual acts; this ruling stood until Lawrence v. Texas (2003), which recognized the right to sexual privacy.
II. Reform and Reaction in the 1970s
C. After the Warren Court
1. The Burger Court – Nixon promised a more conservative Supreme Court; between 1969 and 1972, he appointed four justices, including new chief justice, Warren Burger; conservatives thought the Court would scale back liberal rulings, but it did not; instead remained centrist or confirmed previous liberal decisions; in 1986, the Court ruled that sexual harassment violated the Civil Rights Act; in a controversial 1986 case, the Court upheld a Georgia sodomy statute that criminalized same-sex sexual acts; this ruling stood until Lawrence v. Texas (2003), which recognized the right to sexual privacy.

25. IV. The American Family on Trial
A. Working Families in the Age of Deindustrialization
1. Women Enter the Workforce Between 1965 and 1985, the divorce rate doubled; many Americans still believed in the “family wage” (husband’s earnings as sufficient to support a family), but after 1973, fewer Americans had access to that luxury; increasingly, families required two incomes. The number of single women raising children nearly doubled between 1965 and Women’s paid labor was making up for the declining earning power or the absence of men in American households.
What was the impact of the sexual revolution on families (divorce rates, child delinquency, teen pregnancy, etc.)?
IV. The American Family on Trial
A. Working Families in the Age of Deindustrialization
1. Women Enter the Workforce – Between 1965 and 1985, the divorce rate doubled; many Americans still believed in the “family wage” (husband’s earnings as sufficient to support a family), but after 1973, fewer Americans had access to that luxury; increasingly, families required two incomes. The number of single women raising children nearly doubled between 1965 and Women’s paid labor was making up for the declining earning power or the absence of men in American households.
2. Workers in the National Spotlight – 1970s saw an increase in plant closings and strikes; television shows in the mid-70s reflected the “blue-collar blues” of struggling families: All in the Family, The Waltons, Good Times, Welcome Back, Kotter, and Sanford and Son; voices from the music industry heard voices of blue-collar America: Bruce Springsteen, Johnny Paycheck, and John Cougar (Mellencamp). 25

27. 1. Describe this scene. Who are these men, and what are they doing
1. Describe this scene. Who are these men, and what are they doing? (Answer: This photograph depicts men standing in line in an unemployment office in Cleveland, Ohio, in Cleveland was a major industrial city, one of many in which workers felt the effects of the economic shifts that were taking place in this decade. The men in this photo were recently laid off from jobs and were at the unemployment office to apply for benefits.)
2. What does this photograph suggest about how the economic dislocations of the 1970s affected working-class men? (Answer: The man in the foreground, in particular, appears to be sad and ashamed to be applying for unemployment benefits. Working-class men frequently blamed themselves for their unemployment, even though the causes were structural.)

28. IV. The American Family on Trial
B. Navigating the Sexual Revolution
1. Sex and Popular Culture - Americans increasingly viewed sex as a component of personal happiness, distinct from reproduction; this perspective continued to flourish in the postwar decades, reflected in the Kinsey studies of the 1940s and 1950s; sex before marriage had grown more socially acceptable by the 1960s; birth control, counterculture, and feminism all impacted Americans’ views of sex; 6 million+ women were on the “pill” by 1965.
Sex and Popular Culture - mass-market books: Everything You Always Wanted to Know about Sex, Human Sexual Response, The Joy of Sex; films: Midnight Cowboy (1969), Carnal Knowledge (1971), Shampoo (1974); television shows: Charlie’s Angels, Three’s Company, The Love Boat
2. Middle-Class Marriage Therapeutic industry developed to deal with strains and stresses within marriages (marriage counseling)
IV. The American Family on Trial
B. Navigating the Sexual Revolution (Since the 1910s, Americans increasingly viewed sex as a component of personal happiness, distinct from reproduction; this perspective continued to flourish in the postwar decades, reflected in the Kinsey studies of the 1940s and 1950s; sex before marriage had grown more socially acceptable by the 1960s; birth control, counterculture, and feminism all impacted Americans’ views of sex; 6 million+ women were on the “pill” by 1965.)
1. Sex and Popular Culture – In the 1970s, popular culture was suffused with discussion of the sexual revolution; mass-market books: Everything You Always Wanted to Know about Sex, Human Sexual Response, The Joy of Sex; films: Midnight Cowboy (1969), Carnal Knowledge (1971), Shampoo (1974); television shows: Charlie’s Angels, Three’s Company, The Love Boat.
2. Middle-Class Marriage – Therapeutic industry developed to deal with strains and stresses within marriages.

31. IV. The American Family on Trial
C. Religion in the 1970s: The Fourth Great Awakening 1. Evangelical Resurgence Evangelicals laid the groundwork for the Fourth Great Awakening; many Americans regarded feminism, the counterculture, sexual freedom, divorce, homosexuality, pornography, and legalized abortion not as distinct issues, but as a collective sign of moral decay in society; evangelical church membership grew; so-called televangelists created huge media empires through Christian broadcasting. 2. Religion and the Family Evangelists focused on the nuclear family as the fundamental unit of society, organized along paternalist lines; Fascinating Womanhood by Helen B. Andelin sold more than 2 million copies and spawned a workshop of the same name; led evangelical women in the opposite direction of feminism, encouraging women to defer and submit to men.
IV. The American Family on Trial
C. Religion in the 1970s: The Fourth Great Awakening
1. Evangelical Resurgence – Evangelical Protestant churches emphasized an intimate, personal salvation (being “born again”); focused on a literal interpretation of the Bible; regarded death and resurrection of Jesus as the central message of Christianity; Rev. Billy Graham had risen to fame in late 1940s with a radio show and tent revivals; in 1957, led a sixteen-week crusade in NYC; Graham and other evangelicals laid the groundwork for the Fourth Great Awakening; many Americans regarded feminism, the counterculture, sexual freedom, homosexuality, pornography, and legalized abortion not as distinct issues, but as a collective sign of moral decay in society; evangelical church membership grew; so-called televangelists created huge media empires through Christian broadcasting.
2. Religion and the Family – Evangelists focused on the nuclear family as the fundamental unit of society, organized along paternalist lines; Fascinating Womanhood by Helen B. Andelin sold more than 2 million copies and spawned a workshop of the same name; led evangelical women in the opposite direction of feminism, encouraging women to defer/submit to men.