1. Changing Philosophies for Sport, Fitness, and Physical Education
Introduction to Physical Education, Fitness, and Sport
Daryl Siedentop
Chapter 3
Changing Philosophies for Sport, Fitness, and Physical Education

2. Discussion Questions Can you trace the origins of professional
philosophies?
How coherently can you articulate these
philosophical positions?

3. Discussion Questions What current views reflect the influence
of muscular Christianity, the gymnastics
philosophies, or the British fair play
traditions?
In what forms have these notions
survived?

4. Discussion Questions How have masculine and feminine ideals changed?
What vestiges of the former views still
linger today?

5. Discussion Questions What Physical Education philosophy
best represents your views?
How would you describe the philosophy
underlying the Physical Education
program in the high school that you
attended?

6. Discussion Questions To what extent does progressive
education still dominate school aims
and objectives?
Is progressive education compatible w.
current educational reform?

7. Discussion Questions How does the current wellness movement
differ from the gymnastics philosophies?
Will wellness supplant fitness as a
primary concern? Why? Explain.

8. Discussion Questions Which philosophy seems to dominate
professional sport?
Which one dominates activity at a local
fitness club?
Which one dominates youth sport?

9. Discussion Questions How will the activity choices of
generations X and Y influence the sport
and fitness culture in the future?

10. Some informal Definitions . . .
Ontology
Ethics
Axiology
Politics

11. Some informal Definitions . . .
Ontology
The study of the nature of being,
existence, or reality.
. . . Deciding on a position regarding the link
between Mind and body, or whether there is more
than one reality

12. Some informal Definitions . . .
The study of values and the nature of values
Axiology
. . . What values do you try to instill in others?

13. Some informal Definitions . . .
Ethics
Study of the
nature of morals and moral choices made
by persons;
rules or standards governing the conduct
of an individual or members of a profession
(e.g., judicial or medical ethics).
. . . Making judgments about the “right” thing to do.

14. Some informal Definitions . . .
Judging what is best for the common good
Politics

15. Ontology Ethics Axiology Politics These are all areas of study within
the broader field of Philosophy
Your actions and choices (i.e., your behavior)
reflect your philosophy . . .
Your position on issues, your values.

16. Seeing how your philosophy is connected
with those within your field will help you
articulate your views and positions.
Can you articulate your own position and
values about the profession/field you plan
to enter? Try it!
Over time it will evolve, and change . . .
But be sure you have one!

17. Key developments in the 19th Century:
Philosophical influences in early American Sport, Fitness, and Physical Education
Key developments in the 19th Century:
New forms of Government (France & the USA).
Industrial Revolution.
Fundamental changes in economics, population
demographics, and social institutions.

18. Key developments in the 19th & 20th
Philosophical influences in early American Sport, Fitness, and Physical Education
Key developments in the 19th & 20th
Centuries in the field . . .(a backdrop):
Physical Education becomes a school subject.
Competitive Sport becomes more accepted.
Fitness becomes valued in its own right.
Importance of Play during childhood is recognized.

19. The Gymnastics Philosophies
Main Philosophical influences on Sport, Fitness, and Physical Education
The Gymnastics Philosophies
Muscular Christianity
Masculinity & Femininity Ideals
Amateurism, Fair Play, & British ideals
Character Education
(See also Box 3.1)

20. The Gymnastics Philosophies
German and Swedish systems emerge
within a period of strong Nationalism.
Both were similar in philosophy.
Main goal: Individual development,
self-reliance.
Yet also strongly linked with National
Defense (i.e., military preparedness).

21. Muscular Christianity
Emerged as Puritanism slowly lost its
grip on the young nation.
Reflects a mutual understanding between
Sport and religion.
Ralph Waldo Emerson: “the first wealth
is health.”

22. Muscular Christianity
Achieving fitness and physical prowess
also serves mental, moral and religious
purposes.
Reached popularity through its variation
from Britain: ARNOLDISM.
ARNOLDISM: Uses Sport & fitness
toward reaching manliness, courage,
patriotism, moral character, team spirit, &
intellectual independence.

23. Masculinity & Femininity Ideals
19th Century: Increased acceptance of
Sport and fitness . .
But only for boys/men!
Vigorous activity and competitive sport
were viewed as harmful and “unladylike”
for girls and women.
This was in stark contrast to prevailing
view of men: Virile, tough, aggressive, etc.

24. Masculinity & Femininity Ideals (cont’d.)
Similar views were held in sport, fitness &
Physical Education environments.
Title IX and feminism
greatly accelerated the
change process for
women.

25. Amateurism, Fair Play, and British Ideals
Development of Sport in the late 1900s
mirrored the growth of British Sport:
Amateurism & Fair Play.
It was the wealthy in Britain who exuded
these characteristics.
Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) formed
in 1888.

26. Character Education Through Physical Challenges
Kurt Hahn’s educational goal:
Train character over intellect
Fitness was an important component.
40 min. activity breaks were interspersed
daily throughout classroom activities.

27. Character Education Through Physical Challenges
Youth were challenged through outdoor
activities: Mountain climbing,
sailing expeditions lasting 4 days.
Ergo: The Outward Bound Movement
This orientation formed the basis for the
experiential- and adventure education
movement in the late 20th Century
(e.g.,

28. New Physical Education . . . The Philosophical Roots
School Sport and the
New Physical Education The Philosophical Roots
Clark
Hetherington
1924
Thomas
Wood
John Dewey
Johann
Basedow
Johann
Pestalozzi
Friedrich
Froebel
Jean-Jacque
Rousseau
1740

29. New Physical Education
School Sport and the
New Physical Education
Thomas Wood’s work (1893) signaled
the shift from the Gymnastics movement
to the “Education-through-the-physical”
approach.
Based in part on the “progressive education”
principles developed by John Dewey:

30. New Physical Education
School Sport and the
New Physical Education
John Dewey’s education agenda:
Social reform through child-centered,
natural education.
Students are active participants Doing is
as important as knowing Mental and
physical cannot/should not be separated.
Thus, natural play, sport and games were
valued highly in “progressive education.”

31. New Physical Education
School Sport and the
New Physical Education
John Dewey strongly influenced Clark
Hetherington while at Columbia University.
Hence, the link between progressive
education and “education-through-the-
physical.”
Thus, natural play, sport and games were
valued highly in “progressive education.”

32. New Physical Education . . . The Philosophical Roots
School Sport and the
New Physical Education The Philosophical Roots
Rousseau: Children are born “good”
. . . It is their environment that ruins them.
Strong advocate of physical activity, play,
games & gymnastics as sensory experiences
for a more holistic education.
Play could contribute to developing:
Character and competition.

33. New Physical Education . . . The Philosophical Roots
School Sport and the
New Physical Education The Philosophical Roots
Rousseau influenced educators:
Basedow, Pestalozzi, & Froebel.
They each viewed physical activity, play
as central to children’s development.
Play could contribute to developing:
Character and competition.

34. Re-emergence of Play as a Philosophical Concept
Play was the key link among the various
educational philosophers.
Froebel made it the cornerstone of his
views of how children learn.
Became widely accepted as central to
education and life.
Previously, Christianity (i.e., Reformation)
suppressed play behavior as anti-Christian.

35. Re-emergence of Play as a Philosophical Concept (cont’d.)
Friedrich von Schiller made Play
a legitimate philosophical concept:
“For to speak out once for all, man only
plays when in the full
meaning of the word he is
a man, and he is only
completely a man when
at play.”
(Schiller, 1910)

36. Philosophies Come Together
The Early 20th Century:
Philosophies Come Together
Sport, fitness and school-based Physical
Education had become well accepted and
seen as critical to total development
(though still favoring males).
Physical Education proponents also
influenced the YMCA and playground
movements.
Sport, fitness and Physical Education
each began to form their own identity.

37. 1950’s mark a period of increasing
Philosophical Forces in Sport, Fitness and Physical Education since 1950’s
1950’s mark a period of increasing
specialization, diversification in each area.
Until the 1950’s the “Education-Through-
the-Physical” had not been challenged.
Rise of new philosophical orientations:
Human Movement
Humanistic Sport & Physical Education.
Play Education & Sport Education.
Experiential & Adventure Education

38. “Human Movement” philosophy
Philosophical Forces in Sport, Fitness and Physical Education since 1950’s
“Human Movement” philosophy
First articulated by Rudolph Laban; heavily
promoted by Rosiland Cassidy & Elanor
Metheny.
Became basis for:
a) undergraduate teacher preparation at
UCLA in 1958, and.
b) justifying the academic nature of Physical
Education.

39. “Human Movement” philosophy (cont’d. )
Philosophical Forces in Sport, Fitness and Physical Education since 1950’s
“Human Movement” philosophy (cont’d. )
Framework fostered subsequent specialization
into various sub-disciplines
Offered school programs a more flexible and
open approach to teaching, notably in Elem.
Schools: Movement Education.
Associated teaching styles: Exploration and
guided discovery.

40. “Human Movement” philosophy (cont’d. )
Philosophical Forces in Sport, Fitness and Physical Education since 1950’s
“Human Movement” philosophy (cont’d. )
Still reflected in many of today’s Elem. School
textbooks and school programs & PETE
programs.
Offered school programs a more flexible and
open approach to teaching, notably in Elem.
Schools: Movement Education.
Associated teaching styles: Exploration and
guided discovery.

41. Humanistic Sport & Physical Education
Philosophical Forces in Sport, Fitness and Physical Education since 1950’s
Humanistic Sport & Physical Education
Humanistic Psychology emerged as a
dominant force in Education during the
60’s/70s, emphasizing personal and social
development.
Don Hellison publishes “Humanistic
Physical Education” (1973) targeting personal
development, interpersonal relationships and
self-expression as primary goals for Physical
Education.

42. Humanistic Sport & Physical Education
Philosophical Forces in Sport, Fitness and Physical Education since 1950’s
Humanistic Sport & Physical Education
(cont’d.)
A similar movement develops that condemns
abuses in sport (e.g., Scott, 1969: Athletics for Athletes).
Hellison’s framework for developing “personal
and social responsibility” has developed a
strong foothold in school Physical Education,
most notably those serving urban at-risk youth.

43. Play Education & Sport Education
Philosophical Forces in Sport, Fitness and Physical Education since 1950’s
Play Education & Sport Education
Traditional philosophies viewed Physical
Education as a means towards other outcomes
(i.e., physical, social, mental & moral).
“Play for play sake” (i.e., the activities are
valuable in and of themselves) emerges as a
new means of explaining the importance of
the subject in schools (first promoted by Elanor Metheny).

44. Play Education & Sport Education
Philosophical Forces in Sport, Fitness and Physical Education since 1950’s
Play Education & Sport Education
(cont’d.)
First proposed by Siedentop, it aims to help
students acquire the skills and appreciation for
the activities themselves.
Activities should not
have to be used for
“other” outcomes . . .

45. Play Education & Sport Education
Philosophical Forces in Sport, Fitness and Physical Education since 1950’s
Play Education & Sport Education
(cont’d.)
Play Education places motor play (as seen in
Physical Education) alongside music, art and
drama as an institutionalized form of play
within the broader culture.
As such, it is fundamental to our culture .

46. Play Education & Sport Education (cont’d.)
Philosophical Forces in Sport, Fitness and Physical Education since 1950’s
Play Education & Sport Education (cont’d.)
Where Play Education was a philosophy, Sport
Education (SE) emerged as a coherent
Curriculum & Instruction model for school
Physical Education programs.
SE seeks to help students become competent,
literate and enthusiastic sportpersons To
foster continued participation and contribution
to creating a healthier sport culture.

47. Play Education & Sport Education (cont’d.)
Philosophical Forces in Sport, Fitness and Physical Education since 1950’s
Play Education & Sport Education (cont’d.)
In SE, students are members of a team during
a season in which festivity and team affiliation
is created, a schedule of competition is
completed, records are kept, and a season
champion is determined during a culminating
event.

48. Experiential & Adventure Education
Philosophical Forces in Sport, Fitness and Physical Education since 1950’s
Experiential & Adventure Education
Based on the character-education models from
the 1800’s.
Follows the core values and principles of
Outward Bound (
Adventure & challenge.
Compassion & service.
Learning through experience.
Personal development.
Social & environmental responsibility.

49. Experiential & Adventure Education
Philosophical Forces in Sport, Fitness and Physical Education since 1950’s
Experiential & Adventure Education
Many school Physical Education programs
infuse team building and adventure type
activities.
Includes both in-class and off-campus
experiences (e.g., 2-3 day hiking or canoeing trips).

50. The Fitness Renaissance and Wellness Movement
Fitness is “in” and BIG business.
Targets entire population (i.e., youth
through older adults).
The need for better health is a major
explanation for its current popularity.
HOWEVER, reaching a state of
Wellness is another reason.

51. The Fitness Renaissance and Wellness Movement
Health used to be defined in terms of
the “absence of disease.”
Wellness is defined more broadly:
Absence of disease, as well as the ability to:
cope with daily stressors.
develop and maintain positive
interpersonal relationships.
recognize accomplishment
and personal growth.
think critically and be open to
new ideas
maintain a sense of humor.
(fr. Fahey, Insel & Roth, 2007)

52. The Fitness Renaissance and Wellness Movement
Wellness is reached when one can
effectively balance one’s work, play, and
relationships and view each positively. . .
How would you rate your level of
wellness?
Maintaining a physically active lifestyle is
now accepted as a central component of
moving toward wellness.

53. The Fitness Renaissance and Wellness Movement
Traditionally, wellness has been viewed
as a matter of personal responsibility.
HOWEVER, current trends in sedentary
lifestyles and obesity in the population at
large, make it a public health and public
policy concern
A collective responsibility.

54. The Fitness Renaissance and Wellness Movement
One’s health is strongly influenced by
Socio-economic Status.
Since race and ethnicity is strongly
correlated with SES, health is also
a social and political issue.

55. Lifespan Involvement in Physical Activity:
The new Visions
Physical activity and wellness is
important for ALL (not just children and youth).
New generations are increasingly attracted
to “extreme sports.” WHY??
Even these activities are becoming more
institutionalized (e.g., Winter Games; X-Games).
Fitness is now also a major focus among
older adults and retirees.