1. Federalists and Republicans
american History i
Federalists and Republicans
In Chapter 6, we will explore how our new government, supported by the newly-ratified Constitution, established and defined itself.
Not everyone agreed on the “best” way to interpret the Constitution, and these disagreements typically aligned with one of two factions which developed within the new government. We will see how, despite Washington’s warnings, internal factions led to the formation of political parties.
We will also explore how our new nation made its first diplomatic overtures abroad in an attempt to stay out of the growing conflict between Great Britain and France. However, our nation’s growth, and the resulting westward expansion, put us squarely in the middle of the conflict despite our attempts at neutrality.

2. A New Government
Constitution provided framework – now the real work began
“Continental” leadership not biased by state interests
President’s closest advisers formed the first “Cabinet”
State Department: Thomas Jefferson
Treasury Department: Alexander Hamilton
War Department: Henry Knox
Attorney General: Edmund Randolph
The Constitution provided a framework for the new government, and now it was up to the new leadership to implement it. Key departments needed “continental” leadership who would not be biased by personal or state interests.
The men chosen to be Washington’s closest advisers – his “Cabinet” – were Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State, Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury, Henry Knox as Secretary of War, and Edmund Randolph as the Attorney General.

3. Protecting Citizens’ Rights
Judicial branch organized
District, appellate, Supreme Court
Congress authorized Washington to choose all the first justices
John Jay – 1st Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
Bill of Rights fulfilled Federalist promise
Protected rights of individuals
Grants rights to individuals where not specifically listed (9th Amendment)
Gives rights/powers to states if not enumerated federal powers
In Washington’s first term, the judicial branch was organized into a system of district and appellate courts, as well as a Supreme Court. Congress gave Washington the authority to choose the first justices, including the first Chief Justice, John Jay.
The Bill of Rights reflected the Federalists’ promise to protect the rights of individuals from the reach of the federal government. These first ten amendments to the Constitution were necessary, they believed, to avoid misinterpretations of Constitutional intent with regard to these fundamental rights. The 9th amendment specifically grants rights to individuals where not specifically listed to be under government authority. The 10th amendment further limits federal authority by giving all rights and powers not specifically given to the federal government to the individual states.

4. Financial Concerns New government had debts – how to pay?
Tariff of 1789
Taxed imports, shipments
Cut into profits and raised prices
Southerners discontented – unfair share of burden?
Hamilton pushed for full valuation of debts, bonds
Build credit – but unfair advantage to North?
Compromise: South supported, capital moved to D.C.
Taxes led to “Whiskey Rebellion” in 1794
The new government was burdened by considerable debt. To raise revenue, Congress passed the Tariff of 1789, which levied a tax on imports and shipments of goods. This tariff caused discontent among Southern planters, who thought Congress was biased against the interests of the South. They argued it cut into their profits and unfairly raised prices on needed imports. A tax on whiskey also caused controversy. Whiskey was often used as currency for barter in the west; it was also an easy way for farmers to transport their grain. Farmers protested, attacking tax collectors and those who paid the tax. Washington ultimately sent 15,000 troops to quell the so-called “Whiskey Rebellion” – but there were many who questioned this use of troops to resolve domestic disputes.
To increase confidence in the creditworthiness of the new government, Alexander Hamilton pushed for full valuation of war debts incurred and bonds issued by the Continental Congress. His reasoning was that in so doing, bondholders would have a vested financial interest in the new government’s success. Furthermore, it would allow the new government to build credit so it could borrow more money as needed. Debt, managed appropriately, was something Hamilton believed could be useful to the country. James Madison objected, believing that speculators (who had bought previously undervalued bonds from bondholders who had given up on recovering their investments) would profit unfairly. He also thought the North, having more bondholders, would receive a disproportionate share of the benefits of such a plan. They reached a compromise: Southerners would support Hamilton’s plan if the nation’s capital was relocated from New York to a southern city in the unincorporated District of Columbia.

5. A National Bank
Hamilton believed the bank was necessary to pay federal obligations, issue national currency
Southerners objected
Advantage to North?
No enumerated power to create a bank
Washington agreed the bank was “necessary and proper,” setting precedent (elastic clause – Article 1, Section 8)
Hamilton favored the creation of a national bank, for a variety of reasons: all states could use a single national currency, and a bank would offer centralized management of national debts and payments. Southerners objected, believing such an arrangement would give the North an unfair advantage – and also claiming that the federal government did not have the enumerated power (the specifically-granted power) to create a national bank.
Washington agreed to the creation of the bank, accepting the argument that Article 1, section 8 – that the government had the authority to do what was “necessary and proper” to carry out the business of governing – gave his government the implied power to create a national bank. This decision established the precedent for the federal government to take action on issues not explicitly listed or addressed by the Constitution, but considered necessary for the federal government to govern. This so-called “elastic clause” essentially expands the power of the federal government because much can be interpreted to fall within the scope of “necessary and proper” actions.
Thus, the Bank of the United States was established in 1791, with a 20-year charter.

6. Factions Become Political Parties
Federalists
Strong national government
Favored power in the hands of wealthy, educated elite
Promoted trade, manufacturing
Tariffs protect industry, economic growth
Loose interpretation of the Constitution
Republicans
State governments should have more influence
Wealthy would corrupt government, restrict the rights of ordinary citizens
Power should rest with landowners (“agrarianism”) - promote agriculture
Tariffs a burden on farmers
Strict interpretation of the Constitution, favoring states’ rights
Internal Congressional squabbles over the creation of the national bank led to factional alliances – the nation’s first political parties. Alexander Hamilton and his supporters became the “Federalists.” Supporters of James Madison and Thomas Jefferson became the “Democratic-Republicans,” later known as simply the “Republicans.” This party shouldn’t be confused with the modern-day party by the same name. Jeffersonian “Republicans” became known as “Democrats” in the early 1800’s.

7. The New Nation’s Foreign Policy
The French Revolution stirred partisan sympathies – Republicans in support!
The U.S. had treaty obligations (1778) to help France defend her Caribbean colonies
Proclamation of 1793 – policy of neutrality!
Federalists wanted to support the British
“Citizen Genêt Affair”
British agitation becoming a real problem
Americans in general sympathized with the cause of the French Revolution (1789), until the radical Jacobin faction turned on the aristocracy and declared war on Britain.
The U.S. became concerned about being caught in the middle: we had a treaty obligation to help France defend her colonies (1778), but there was a real chance that same treaty would anger the British (being seen as an alliance with their enemy). The Federalists supported the British, while the Republicans generally supported the rights of the French people against the “meddling” of the British.
The U.S. tried to stay neutral in the conflict. Washington issued the Proclamation of 1793, declaring that U.S. interactions with the two nations would remain “friendly and impartial.” The so-called “Citizen Genet” Affair tested that neutrality policy in that same year. (See reading: “The Citizen Genet Affair”)
Nevertheless, the British undertook various activities to agitate the Americans and keep them from forming any additional alliances with the French. The British still occupied forts on U.S. territory, and from those positions they encouraged Native Americans to attack American settlers. They also intercepted ships – including American ones – bound for French ports, and confiscated the cargo.

8. Diplomatic Efforts
Jay’s Treaty (1794) a weak deal for U.S. – but prevented war with Britain
Britain had the right to seize cargo bound for France
No compensation for seized goods
Arbitration to resolve disputes
“Most favored nation” trading status
“Barbary pirates” continued to capture, ransom merchant ships – an ongoing concern
Thomas Pinckney negotiated Treaty of San Lorenzo with Spain (1795)
Gained rights of navigation on Mississippi River
Negotiated use of port of New Orleans
Chief Justice John Jay was dispatched by President Washington as a special envoy to try to negotiate with the British, but the resulting treaty in 1794 (known as “Jay’s Treaty”) gave huge concessions to the British. It gave Britain the right to seize cargo headed for French ports, gave no direct compensation for seized goods, required disputes to be resolved by arbitration, and provided “most favored nation” trading status. It did require the British to remove troops from forts on U.S. soil, but generally speaking, from the American perspective, the Jay Treaty was a weak, weak deal. For the time being, however, it prevented war with Britain.
Trouble still loomed on the Barbary Coast, where pirates continued to capture American merchant ships and hold them for ransom – since we no longer enjoyed the protection of the British navy. Secretary of State Jefferson argued strongly against the expected payments of tribute which most countries paid to avoid trouble from the pirates.
Thomas Pinckney was more successful in his negotiations with Spain. Spain feared a U.S./Britain alliance, because Spain was allied with France; they did not want any trouble from us. In 1795, the Treaty of San Lorenzo gave the U.S. rights of navigation on the Mississippi River, as well as use of the strategic port of New Orleans.

9. Westward Expansion
Good farmland, plentiful fish and game encouraged settlers to move westward
New states admitted: Kentucky, Tennessee
Expansion led to confrontations with Native Americans over land, hunting rights
Washington sent troops to fight resistance
Treaty of Greenville (1795) exchanged payments for territory
This new access to the Mississippi River, and the port of New Orleans, opened the door for westward U.S. expansion. Good farmland and an abundance of fish and game in the western territories led to huge westward growth. As populations grew in the territories, the states of Kentucky and Tennessee were admitted to the Union.
This expansion, however, led to new confrontations with Native Americans. The Treaty of Greenville gave an annual payment to twelve Native American nations in exchange for territory in the northwest (near what are now parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois).

10. Northwest Territory
Pennsylvania

11. Washington’s Farewell
Gracefully declines consideration for a third term
Offers warnings
Regional differences would create divisions
Political parties also divisive
Avoid international alliances or antipathies
Maintain neutrality in matters of commerce
Asks indulgence for any mistakes, and looks forward to retirement as a regular citizen
Washington used the occasion of his departure from office to set what he believed were important precedents for the office of the Presidency. He declined to run for a third term, saying the “weight of years” made him question his fitness to continue, and strengthened his desire for retirement. Nevertheless, his final official address carried some “friendly advice” for his successors.
In his Farewell Address of 1796, he cautioned his successors against the development of regional factions. He also warned that the formation of political parties might lead people to seek “repose” in one individual who might then be granted absolute powers. Finally, he declared that our nation’s alliances should be as impartial as possible, lest we become the pawn of a stronger nation, or inspire aggression in weaker ones. He believed our nation should not be seen as having any permanent political alliances abroad, but that we should deal fairly with each nation (in particular, keeping out of the European political squabbles.)
(See reading: “Washington’s Farewell Address – Excerpts”/”A Farewell Warning”)
John Adams, a Federalist who had served as Vice President under Washington, narrowly won the election of 1796, defeating Republican Thomas Jefferson by 3 electoral votes.

12. The United States

13. How did President John Adams address challenges to United States sovereignty – and his own authority?

14. Trouble with France
France retaliated for “Jay’s Treaty” by seizing U.S. cargo ships
Wanted a payment (bribe!) and a loan from U.S. before agreeing to negotiations
The “XYZ Affair” enraged Americans – “Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute!”
Dispute led to Quasi-War as U.S., France seized each other’s ships at sea
Disagreement ended with Convention of 1800
Video: John Adams (his envoys’ trip to France)
Jay’s Treaty, toothless though it was, riled the French because it gave advantages to the British. The French retaliated by seizing U.S. cargo ships as they approached Europe. The U.S. approached the French to negotiate a deal, but the French refused to speak with American envoys without a payment of $250,000 simply to open talks (a bribe, really). Because the reports of this request for payment used the letters X, Y, and Z in place of the real names of French officials, the issue became known as the “XYZ Affair.” Americans were furious. The Federalists’ slogan was “millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute.”
The result was the so-called “Quasi-War” as the U.S. and France seized each other’s ships at sea, which ended only with the Convention of In this agreement, the U.S. was released from their 1778 treaty (requiring us to defend France’s colonies in the Caribbean), and the French were not obligated to pay damages for U.S. goods and cargo previously seized.

15. Partisan Discord
Republican criticism of Adams, Federalists led to passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)
Naturalization Act required 14 years residency for citizenship
Alien Act authorized deportation of any alien deemed “dangerous” to public peace and safety
Alien Enemies Act authorized deportation of any alien native to any country at war with the U.S.
Sedition Act made it illegal to print or say anything “false, scandalous, or malicious” against the government
States protested “unconstitutional” Acts!
Virginia: claimed interposition right
Kentucky: claimed right of nullification
Foreshadowed later defenses of regional interests!
John Adams and the Federalists were coming under increased criticism from Republicans over the Quasi-War and other diplomatic missteps. In retaliation, the Federalist-led Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts in Some provisions are as follows:
Under the Immigrant Act, new immigrants had to wait fourteen years before being allowed to become U.S. citizens – the idea being these new immigrants might hold sympathy for their home countries over their adopted country, and might work to subvert the U.S. government.
The Alien Act gave the president the power to deport aliens without a trial if they were believed to be “dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States.”
The Alien Enemies Act also gave the president the power to round up and deport aliens without a trial if the U.S. was at war with their country of origin.
The most controversial aspect of these Acts, though, made it a Federal crime to criticize public officials. Such criticism under the Acts would be considered “sedition” – incitement to rebellion; it included any commentary made in print, or spoken, which was deemed to be “false, scandalous, or malicious” about the government or elected officials. Under the Sedition Act, 15 people (editors and Republicans) were imprisoned for saying anything critical of the government, and many thought this was an unconstitutional limitation on 1st Amendment rights.
Some states challenged the Alien and Sedition Acts. Virginia’s challenge (authored by James Madison) claimed states could intercede to stop illegal actions by the Federal government (interposition). Kentucky (secretly authored by Thomas Jefferson) challenged them claiming individual states had the right to declare unconstitutional laws invalid (nullification). Although neither of these protests gained traction at the time, they foreshadowed later defenses of regional interests which states would take as regional divides widened. (The Acts expired at the end of Adams’ presidency, and as president Thomas Jefferson pardoned all those convicted under the Sedition Act.)

16. The Election of 1800
Alien and Sedition Acts, new taxes prevented Adams’ re-election
Republicans Jefferson, Aaron Burr received equal Electoral College votes
Election sent to Federalist-dominated Congress
Hamilton advocated for Jefferson (angering Burr…)
Jefferson convinced key Federalist that he would not purge Federalists, or dismantle the Bank
Constitutional protocols challenged – and power transferred peacefully!
The controversy over the Alien and Sedition Acts, as well as new taxes on property (houses, land… and slaves), made re-election a challenge for Adams and the Federalists. Republican candidates Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr received equal votes (73 each) in the Electoral College, so the Federalist-dominated House of Representatives was forced to choose the new president.
Alexander Hamilton supported Thomas Jefferson (creating animosity between himself and Aaron Burr). Jefferson won by convincing one Federalist that as president, he would not purge all Federalists from the government, nor would he dismantle the national bank. Aaron Burr became Vice President.
This election was important for our new nation because the Constitutional protocols were challenged – and survived – in the face of majority opposition. The “people’s chamber,” the House of Representatives, was given the final say in the choice of the president, and power was transferred peacefully.
Furthermore, to avoid future confusion on the issue, Congress passed the 12th Amendment, which required election ballots to specify which candidate is running for President, and which one is running for Vice President.

18. A Change in the Capital
As President, Jefferson preferred less formal protocol
A Republican, but did not overturn all Federalist policies
Integrated Republican ideals
Wanted small government, limited federal power
Cut taxes, government spending (but supported the National Bank)
Favored local militias, not a standing army
Jefferson’s personal style was less formal than his predecessors, and as president he desired less formal protocol – after all, he was president, not royalty.
As a Republican, Jefferson favored small government and limited federal power. However, he did not overturn all Federalist policies once in office; his goal was to integrate Republican ideals into existing policies over time.
Jefferson supported the national bank, but in other fiscal matters he cut taxes (in particular, the hated excise tax on whiskey!) and curbed government spending. He favored smaller, local militias for defense as opposed to a standing national army.

19. Judiciary Disputes
Repeal of Judiciary Act of 1801 removed Adams’ “midnight judges”
Republicans sought to remove other Federalist judges who disagreed with them
House impeachment of Justice Samuel Chase not upheld by Senate
Actions not “high crimes and misdemeanors”
Set precedent: judges could only be removed from the bench for criminal behavior
Marbury v. Madison established right of judicial review
As John Adams left office, he appointed several Federalist judges at the very last minute under the Judiciary Act of Republicans removed these so-called “midnight judges,” rejecting Adams’ attempt to load the benches with Federalist-minded judges. Not satisfied with that, Republicans also began investigating and removing other previously-seated Federalist judges. They viewed this as part of the checks-and-balances granted them by the Constitution, and they resented the Federalist majority on the bench.
One Supreme Court justice, Samuel Chase, was impeached in 1804 by the House of Representatives after he had denounced Jefferson and the Republicans. The Senate, however, disagreed with the removal of Justice Chase, saying his offenses (while unfair) did not reach the level of “high crimes and misdemeanors” necessary for impeachment and removal from the bench. Thus, another new precedent was set: seated judges could only be removed for criminal behavior, not merely because they disagreed with the majority in power.
Another important case further defined the role and power of the judiciary. In 1803, William Marbury sued to require James Madison to deliver documents confirming his appointment by John Adams as a justice of the peace. Madison refused and Marbury petitioned the Supreme Court to force the issue. The Supreme Court, led by Chief Justice John Marshall, refused, saying the Court did not have jurisdiction in the case. In so doing, Marshall declared invalid a section of the Judiciary Act of 1789 – and thus the case of Marbury v. Madison established the Court’s right of judicial review. Judicial review means that the Supreme Court has the right to determine the constitutionality of laws made by Congress, and also has the right to strike down those it believes are not constitutional.

20. The Louisiana Purchase
Jefferson sought greater western expansion
Believed we needed more landowners!
Wanted to preserve access to Lower Mississippi (and avoid a direct alliance with Britain)
Napoleon offered to sell territory acquired from Spain
Wanted to focus on conquest in Europe – and needed funds
April 1803 – Louisiana Purchase (cost: approx. $15m)
Expeditions (Lewis & Clark, Zebulon Pike) explored new territory
Jefferson believed that agrarianism – the growth of agriculture – was the best path to American prosperity. To succeed, he believed our republic needed more landowners – which meant our nation needed more land. Furthermore, he wanted to avoid a direct alliance with Britain, which might anger the French and jeopardize important rights of access to the lower Mississippi and the port of New Orleans.
Napoleon of France was focused on Europe, and he needed funds in order to pursue his goal of expanding his European empire. He offered to sell territory France had recently acquired from Spain – the “Louisiana Territory” and New Orleans. In April 1803, a deal was made. The Louisiana Purchase cost $11.25 in cash and the forgiveness of French debts owed to U.S. citizens – making the final purchase price around $15 million in total. With this acquisition, the U.S. doubled the size of its territory and gained full control of the Mississippi River.
But what exactly had we bought? There was much uncertainty about what we had gained, and even the northern/southern borders of this new territory. Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis and William Clark on a westbound expedition to explore the new territory and find a route to the Pacific (which they ultimately found through the Oregon Territory, aided by their Shoshone guide, Sacagawea). Another explorer, Zebulon Pike, mapped the upper Mississippi river, Colorado, and Rio Grande areas.

22. The “Essex Junto”
New Englanders in Essex County, MA formed the “Essex Junto”
Feared loss of influence on national affairs
Advocated secession from the Union
Supported Aaron Burr for NY governor; Hamilton denounced Burr’s candidacy
Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel, during which Burr killed Hamilton
Some New Englanders, fearing loss of the region’s influence on national affairs due to western expansion – and in particular, the Louisiana Purchase, formed the Essex Junto to advocate secession of New England from the Union. They were so named because most of their leadership came from Essex County in Massachusetts.
This effort did not gain much traction, so to garner attention for their cause they tried to persuade Aaron Burr to run for New York governor in When Alexander Hamilton publicly expressed misgivings about Burr’s leadership abilities and trustworthiness, Burr lost his gubernatorial campaign.
Feeling publicly humiliated, Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel. Duels had been a common way to defend one’s personal honor, although the practice was in the process of being outlawed in the northern states. Hamilton and Burr traveled to New Jersey for their duel as dueling had been outlawed in New York. Hamilton discharged his pistol in the air, and not at Burr, but Burr fired at Hamilton with his first shot, killing him.
After that, Burr’s national political aspirations more or less ended – he did finish his term as Vice President, but was later embroiled in a secession scandal in the western territories, and charged with treason.

23. Avoiding War
In 1803, Americans again caught in the middle of French-British conflict
Both threatened to confiscate cargo bound for Europe
British impressment of U.S. sailors continued
Tensions with Great Britain escalated when British fired on the Chesapeake in 1807
Embargo attempted, but repealed in 1809 (was hurting American farmers
The fragile truce between the French and the British collapsed in Americans found themselves stuck in the middle – both France and Britain threatened to confiscate any American goods on ships bound for Europe. The British also had adopted the practice of impressment of U.S. sailors on such ships. It is true that many British sailors had deserted their posts, and many of the deserters sought refuge on American ships – however, the taking of American sailors (essentially, kidnapping them to serve in the British navy) in addition to the British deserters infuriated Americans.
Tensions escalated in 1807 when a British warship fired on the Chesapeake, a U.S. merchant ship that refused to stop and allow the British to board. The U.S. government responded with an embargo – a ban on trade with Britain. This embargo was unsuccessful, as U.S. farmers and merchants lost an important market for their goods. It was ultimately repealed in 1909.

24. Rising Tensions Lead to War
British Orders in Council required any ships bound for French ports to obtain British licenses, or risk capture
Similar decrees from French government designated ships visiting British ports as enemy vessels, subject to attack and capture
James Madison elected in 1808
U.S. made several attempts to resolve trade stalemate
Non-Intercourse Act – no trade with Britain, France
Macon’s Bill #2 – U.S. would trade with all, but impose embargo on either Britain or France if one dropped trade restrictions
When France removed trade restrictions first, U.S. refused to import British goods
Republican James Madison was elected in 1808, amidst these rising tensions between Britain and the U.S. Several attempts were made to resolve the trade stalemate through diplomatic means, as both Britain and France continued to confiscate American cargo bound for Europe. Both countries were advised that the U.S. would continue to trade with the first of them to remove trade restrictions. France agreed first, and the U.S. subsequently refused to import British goods.
Eventually, this did have some impact on the British economy. By the time Britain decided to remove trade restrictions, however, it was too late – Congress had declared war on Britain in June of “War Hawks” in the South and West – those who supported war against Britain, such as John C. Calhoun of North Carolina – wanted help for planters and farmers, and relief for western settlers who found themselves increasingly in conflict with Native Americans.

25. Clashes with Native Americans
Settlements encroached on Native American territorial boundaries (set by previous treaty)
Indiana governor William Henry Harrison led a force to defeat the Shawnee and Tecumseh (who advocated tribal unity)
Battle of Tippecanoe in the fall of 1811 fragmented Native American resistance – and forged Harrison’s political reputation
Many in U.S. south, west thought invasion of Canada would settle territorial disputes
Westerners were angry with the British for encouraging Native Americans to attack settlements. However, the Native Americans had their own motivation to attack settlers – the settlements extended beyond the boundaries set in the Treaty of Greenville, and encroached on hunting grounds the Native Americans depended upon for survival.
Tecumseh was a charismatic Shawnee leader who was trying to unify his people to fight against the settlements. William Henry Harrison, the governor of Indiana, led an armed force to defeat the Shawnee, whom he defeated at the Battle of Tippecanoe. Many surviving Shawnee, including Tecumseh, fled to Canada.
This loss was damaging to Native American unity and caused them to lose faith in their leadership. For Harrison, the victory cemented his political reputation and later, helped him gain the presidency. Furthermore, many in the U.S. South and West began to support an invasion of (British-held) Canada to settle territorial disputes once and for all.

26. “Mr. Madison’s War”
Congress declared war on Great Britain in June, 1812
British response suspending Orders in Council “too late”
“War Hawks” wanted help for southern planters, farmers, and western settlers
No troops, equipment, money – no matter!
Charter of Bank of United States not renewed
Northeast bankers refused to loan money, and New England militias largely uncooperative
Madison ordered invasion of Canada anyway
3 unsuccessful battles: Detroit, Niagara Falls, Montreal
Commodore Oliver Perry able to defeat the British at Lake Erie
By 1813, still no progress – and no territory won!
The United States did not have the troops, equipment, or money to fight a war. Many thought the idea to be a vanity of President Madison’s – thus some mockingly called it “Mr. Madison’s war.” In 1811, the charter of the Bank of the United States was up for renewal, but had not yet been renewed. Northeast bankers refused to loan the government money for a war effort. Madison ordered the invasion of Canada anyway.
The U.S. launched three unsuccessful attacks at Detroit, Niagara Falls, and Montreal. Northern militiamen, especially those from New York, were not personally in favor of the war (like most Northerners) and refused to cross the border into Canada – claiming the U.S. government did not have the authority to command them outside U.S. territory. Although Commodore Perry was able to mount a successful attack at Lake Erie and gain control of this key water route from the British, by 1813 there had been no real progress in the war insofar as the U.S. had yet to win any Canadian territory.

28. The End of the War Key British strategy: coast, NY, New Orleans
Set fire to D.C. (White House, Capitol)
…but Fort McHenry in Baltimore withstood attack (and led Francis Scott Key to write “Star-Spangled Banner”)
British defeated at, retreated from Lake Champlain
Gen. Andrew Jackson became a hero with victory at Battle of New Orleans (January 1815)
Treaty of Ghent (1814) restored postwar boundaries (and didn’t resolve anything)
Federalists faded from the scene – seemed unpatriotic after Hartford Convention!
In 1814, the British war with France ended – so Britain was now free to focus all its attention on the conflict with the U.S. The British strategy was threefold: to attack us on our eastern coast, to try and take New York, and to hold the port of New Orleans.
They attacked Washington, D.C. and set fire to the White House and the Capitol (and yes, the first lady, Dolley Madison, was able to rescue a few precious and historical items on her way out!). The British next went to Baltimore, but here the Americans’ defenses were stronger. Fort McHenry withstood an all-night siege and remained in U.S. control the next day. It was after witnessing the battle at Fort McHenry that Francis Scott Key wrote the poem “Star-Spangled Banner,” which became the words to our national anthem. (full poem:
The British were also forced to abandon their plans to take New York when they were defeated at Lake Champlain and forced to retreat. Although the war ended soon thereafter, with the signing of the Treaty of Ghent, General Andrew Jackson did not receive timely word of it and became a national hero upon his troops’ victory in the Battle of New Orleans in January Jackson’s victory fueled American nationalism – and Jackson’s political prospects.
( “Battle of New Orleans” by Johnny Horton, 1959)
The Treaty of Ghent didn’t resolve the issues which presumably led us to war in the first place: there was no agreement to stop impressments, and the treaty merely restored pre-war territorial boundaries. However, from a political perspective the U.S. gained prestige on the world stage, having held her own against what was then a world power. Domestically, the Federalists’ influence diminished as their opposition to the war seemed petty and unpatriotic, and the party gradually faded from the political scene. [The U.S. – Canadian border was formally established by the Convention of 1818 to be 49 degrees N latitude.]

29. Oh, Say… Can You Sing?

30. Nailed… or Failed?