1. Terror Management vs. Meaning Management
© Paul T. P. Wong

2. Overview Elisabeth Kübler-Ross’ Stage Theory of Grief
Ernest Becker’s Denial of Death
Terror Management Theory (TMT)
Challenges of TMT
Wong’s Meaning-Management Theory (MMT)

3. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, MD (1926-2004)
A Swiss American psychiatrist
A pioneer in near-death studies
The author of the ground- breaking book On Death and Dying (1969),
Developed the theory of the five stages of grief

4. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross's Theory of Stages of Grief
Terror Management focuses on Denial, whereas Meaning Management focuses on Acceptance. 

5. Ernest Becker: The Denial of Death
Do you think that all human behaviors are motivated by fear and denial of the terror of death as hypothesized by Terror Management Theory?

6. Existential anxiety is an existential given, but terror management theory is based on unconscious defense mechanisms against this anxiety rather than a rational decision to work towards death acceptance.

7. Terror Management Theory hypothesizes human beings unconsciously defend themselves in two ways: (a) faith in an internalized cultural worldview, and (b) self-esteem, which is attained by living up to the standards of value prescribed by one’s worldview.
TMT psychologists view human culture as a belief system constructed to give meaning to life in order to reduce the horror of death -- beliefs in after life or symbolic immortality.  The worldview is the foundation of all human culture.

8. Terror Management
Unconscious defense mechanisms against the terror of death
Cultural worldview defense mechanism
Self-esteem defense mechanism
No longer adequate in the face of impending death

9. Terror Management (cont.)
Need to accept our personal mortality
Need to connect with the continuity of life
Need for symbolic immortality

10. Pyszczynski, Greenberg, & Solomon’s (2002) Terror management Theory (TMT)
Manage or deny
subconscious terror
Cognitive
construction
of immortality
Resort to
anger and violence

11. Questions for TMT
How do you account for the following kind of self-destructive behaviors in terms of terror management theory?
self-harm and suicide
addiction 
risky cosmetic surgery
gang war
extreme sports

12. Competing Theories Taoism & Buddhism
Deci & Ryan’s Self-Determination Theory
Humanistic Psychology
Frankl’s Logotherapy
Wong’s Meaning-Management Theory

13. There is a big difference between achievement motivated by fearlessness of death or the terror of death.

14. Our awareness of the inevitability of personal mortality leads to either terrorizes or energizes one's life, depending on one's attitude towards life and death.

15. Deci & Ryan's self-determination therapy provides a growth-oriented positive life attitude in contrast to Terror Management Theory.

16. The Basic Tenets of Logotherapy
Freedom of will: Not only freedom from some negative condition but also freedom to something rewarding.
Will to meaning: Striving to find a meaning in one’s life is the primary motivational force.
Meaning of life: One can always discover meaning in life regardless of life’s circumstances.
The three basic tenets of logotherapy are: Freedom of choice, will to meaning, and meaning of life. All three tenets are essential for living a meaningful life. Freedom of choice simply emphasizes the human capacity for self-determination and choosing the right attitude even in the most restrictive circumstances. Will to Meaning refers to the primary intrinsic motivation of seeking meaning and living a meaningful life even for terminal patients. Will to meaning is essential for resilience and well-being; it can be best understood as the will to live in spite of pain and suffering (Frankl, 1969/1988). Meaning of life can be discovered until one’s last breath. This affirmation of meaning is based on the spiritual or noetic dimension. Fabry wrote: “People’s lives will be meaningful to the extent that their human spirit is able to tune in on the ‘Ultimate Meaning’ (Frankl, 1985, p. 141) in the suprahuman dimension of the Spirit (with a capital S)” (Fabry, 1998, pp. 297–298).

17. Freedom & Responsibility
Logotherapy emphasizes the responsible & meaningful use of freedom.
Human existence can only be understood in terms of responsibility.
The will to meaning is based on a sense of responsibility.
Responsibleness means meeting the demand quality of every situation.
“Human responsibility is a responsibility springing from the singularity and uniqueness of each man’s existence. Man’s existence is a responsibility springing from finiteness….This finiteness of life, the limited time man has upon this earth, does not make life meaningless. On the contrary, we are saying death itself is what makes life meaningful. We have said that a part of the singularity of life is the singularity of every situation….Part of the uniqueness of life is the uniqueness of every man’s destiny.” (Frankl, 1986, p. 74)
“With his unique destiny, each man stands, so to speak, alone in the entire cosmos.” (Frankl, 1986, p. 75)
“Man can preserve a vestige of spiritual freedom, of independence of mind, even in such terrible conditions of psychic and physical stress” (Frankl, 1985, p.86) as the Nazi concentration camps.
Make meaningful choices each day, each moment by seeing the larger picture and following our reasoning and intuitive conscience rather than impulse and instinct.
Frankl (1978) realizes that “Human freedom is finite freedom. Man is not free from conditions. But he is free to take a stand in regard to them. The conditions do not completely condition him” (p. 47). Frankl believes that although our existence is influenced instincts, inherited disposition, and environment, an area of freedom is always available to us. “Everything can be taken from a man, but…the last of the human freedoms -- to choose one’s attitude in any given set of circumstances, to choose one’s own way” (Frankl, 1963, p.104). Therefore, we all have the freedom to take a stand towards the deterministic conditions, to transcend our fate. In short, we always have to the freedom of will to transform negatives into positives, at least with respect to our attitudes.
Responsibility and responsibleness:
Frankl differentiated between responsibility and responsibleness. The former comes from possessing the freedom of will. The latter refers to exercising our freedom to make the right decisions and reactions to the demands of life. One of the objectives of logotherapy is to teach others the importance of responsibleness. Frankl (1984):
“We had to learn ourselves and, furthermore, we had to teach the despairing men that it did not really matter what we expected from life, but rather what life expected from us. We needed to stop asking about the meaning of life, and instead to think of ourselves as those who were being questioned by life -- daily and hourly. Our answer must consist, not in talk and meditation, but in right action and in right conduct. Life ultimately means taking the responsibility to find the right answer to its problems and to fulfil the tasks which it constantly sets for each individual.” (p. 98).
“This emphasis on responsibleness is reflected in the categorical imperative of logotherapy, which is: Live as if you were living already for the second time and as if you had acted the first time as wrongly as you are about to act now”…Such a precept confronts him with life’s finiteness as well as the finality of what the makes out of both his life and himself.” (Frankl, 1984, pp )
Responsibleness is also derived from the life’s unique demands on each individual. Frankl (1967):
“Each man is unique and each man’s life is singular; no one is replaceable nor is his life repeatable. This two-fold uniqueness adds to man’s responsibleness. Ultimately, this responsibleness derives from the existential fact that life is a chain of questions which man has to answer by answering for life, to which he has to respond by being responsible, by making decisions, by deciding which answers to give to the individual question. And I venture to say that each question has only one answer -- the right one! This does not imply that man is always capable of finding the right answer or solution to each problem, or finding the true meaning of his existence. Rather, the contrary is true; as a finite being, he is not exempt from error, and, therefore, has to take the risk of erring.” (p. 31)
One of the therapeutic goals of logotherapy is to make clients conscious of their responsibility. Existential analysis aims at nothing more and nothing less than leading men to consciousness of their responsibility. (Frankl, 1986, p. 275)

18. The Will to Meaning It is the primary motivation for living.
Everyone needs to find the true meaning of one’s own life.
Will to meaning is essential for resilience and well-being to the extent that it means one’s capacity to live in spite of pain & suffering (similar to the will to live, “sei no yokubo”, in Meaningful Life Therapy)
“Finding meaning or the will to meaning is the primary motivation for living….the meaning that an individual finds is unique to each person and can be fulfilled only by that one person….Frankl emphasized that the true meaning of each person’s life is something that must be discovered by activity in the world through interaction with others, not solely through introspection….. Challenging a person with a potential meaning to fulfill evokes the will to meaning.” (Graber p. 65)
“Self-transcendence is called in logotherapy the ‘will to meaning’. If man can find and fulfill a meaning in his life, he becomes happy but also capable of coping with suffering. If he can see a meaning, he is even prepared to give his life.” (Frankl’s [1969] The Will to Meaning, as quoted in Graber, p. 296)
The emptiness and despair that people feel and their quest for meaning are evidence of the will to meaning.
There are many triggers of the will to meaning:
Challenging a person with a potential meaning to fulfill
Confronting a life crisis – every crisis is a new opportunity to find new elements of meaning in that situation
The delusion and emptiness after achieving success - “Is this all there is?”
Life transitions
Frankl (1967) likened the quest for ultimate meaning to the Israelites following the “cloud” in the biblical story of Exodus.
We are meaning-oriented. The will-to-meaning is “the basic striving of man to find and meaning and purpose” (Frankl, 1969, p. 35). The will-to-meaning is possible because of another human capacity and tendency of self-transcendence: “Being human is being always directed, and pointing to, something or someone other than oneself: to a meaning to fulfill or another human being to encounter, a cause to serve or a person to love” (Frankl, 1978, p. 35). As spiritual beings, individuals have the capacity to distance themselves from the psycho-biological organism and transcend their own limitations to achieve a higher purpose.

19. Meaning of Life
Life has meaning under all circumstances. It is our responsibility to respond to life’s demands.
Each person must discover the meaning potential of each situation.
The ultimate meaning lies in its pursuit.
The situational meaning can be experienced through three avenues of value.

20. Three Basic Pathways to Meaning
Creative value: giving something to the world through creative works.
Experiential value: receiving something from the world through appreciation and gratitude.
Attitudinal value: taking a heroic stand towards suffering and fate.
Frankl’s three values of discovering meaning (creative, experiential, and attitudinal) are important in logotherapy, especially for cancer patients. Attitudinal value empowers patients to take a heroic stand and transform suffering into the highest form of human achievement. Life becomes meaningful to the extent that suffering holds positive meanings.

21. Three Basic Principles
The Pleasure Principle (Freud)
Hedonic Pursuits & Addiction
The Power Principle (Adler)
Deviant Behavior & Conflict
The Meaning Principle (Frankl)
Self-Transcendence & Common Good

23. Meaning-Management Theory
Definition
Meaning management refers to how we manage meaning-seeking, meaning-making, and meaning reconstruction in order to survive and flourish
Meaning management focuses on acceptance and self-regulation of our inner life (e.g., consciousness & intentionality)

24. Meaning-Management Theory
Managing meaning seeking as a motivation and core value, 
Managing meaning-making regarding the content of one's life meaning
Managing meaning-reconstruction as a way of coping (re-appraisal and re-storying). 

25. Three Levels of Self-Transcendence
Mindful Awareness – Situational Meaning (Transcends Defense Mechanisms)
Setting Life Goals - Mission or Calling (Transcends Egotistic Desires)
Choosing Core Values – Ultimate Meaning (Transcends Material World)

26. Level 1: Seeking Situational Meaning
To reach beyond our mental and situational constraints and connect with our spiritual values.
This involves being mindful of the present moment with an attitude of openness, curiosity, and compassion.

27. Level 2: Seeking One’s Calling
To reach beyond self-actualization and pursue a higher purpose for the greater good
It involves engagement and striving to achieve a concrete meaning in life
It involves a life goal of contributing something of value to others
It often has a transcendental origin

28. Level 3: Seeking Ultimate Meaning
To reach beyond our physical limitations
It is beyond our comprehension
We can only gain a glimpse of the invisible glory of the transcendental realm
For non-theistic seekers, seeking ultimate meaning means seeking the ultimate ideals of goodness, truth, and beauty

29. Meaning Mindset leads to less death fear than Success Mindset.

30. Only a purpose of Self-Transcendence leads to fulfillment & reduction of death fear.

31. Meaning needs to be based on enduring values.

32. Managing Adversity through Meaning

33. Managing the Content of One’s Life
According to Wong (1998), there are 8 sources of meaning and the good life.
Achievement
Acceptance
Transcendence
Intimacy
Relationship
Religion
Fairness
Positive emotions

34. Managing a Balanced Meaningful Life

36. Three Types of Death Acceptance (Wong, Reker, & Gesser, 1994)
Neutral - facing death rationally as an inevitable end of every life
Approach - accepting death as a gateway to a better afterlife
Escape - choosing death as a better alternative to a painful existence
Approach acceptance is rooted in religious/spiritual beliefs in a desirable afterlife, offering hope and comfort to the dying as well as the bereaved.
Escape acceptance is primarily based on the perception that life is so painful and miserable that death offers a welcome relief. In such cases, the terror of death seems less fearful than the terror of living.

37. Neutral Acceptance
A rational and scientific approach to accepting death as part of the biological process
There is no afterlife, but there is symbolic immortality
Creative & significant contributions make life worth living
Meaningful relationships reduce death anxiety

38. Approach Acceptance Belief in God and an afterlife
Heaven is a better place than this world
Readiness to let go things of this world
Recognition of the spiritual connection with a transcendental reality
Hope in sharing spiritual life with loved ones for all eternity

39. Escape Acceptance Life is unbearable; death is a better alternative
Death sets me free from pain & suffering
Death seems to be the only way out of a terrible mess
No more quality of life, no meaning for continued existence

40. Ten Pathways to Death Acceptance through Meaning Management
Attitudinal – Maintain a courageous & hopeful stance
Experience – Receive and appreciate beauty & love
Creative – Give ourselves to creative work
Generative – Give ourselves to future generations
Relational – Maintain connections and repair relationships
© Paul T. P. Wong

41. Ten Pathways to Death Acceptance through Meaning Management (cont.)
Narrative – Construct meaning through stories & narratives
Symbolic – Enrich life with rituals, images, & poetry
Spiritual – Practice and internalize religion/spirituality
Nature – Become attuned to the rhythms of nature
Internal – Develop an inner sanctuary
© Paul T. P. Wong

42. Conclusion
“Meaning-Management Theory is a psychological model that deals with the important issue of specifying mechanisms that may allow individuals to accept death by infusing meaning into their life.” (Tomer, Eliason, & Wong, 2008, p. 443)