1. Reform & Nationalism & Revolution
in Europe
Reform & Nationalism & Revolution

2. Let us die like men, and not be sold like slaves!
Peterloo Massacre, 1819
Let us die like men, and not be sold like slaves!
St. Peter’s Field in Manchester:
Illegal political meeting: wanted reform of Parliamentary elections
government used armed cavalry to disperse crowd of 60,000 protestors
11 people were killed & 100s wounded; soldiers followed orders with ruthless efficiency
Government more repressive in wake of massacre: passed the Six Acts: forbade large political meetings & restricted press criticism
Importance: symbolic of Congress of Vienna era of Conservatism; government reaction to reform is conservative & repressive, even in Britain
Britain = Success Story of Reform --> for Middle Class
Goes from repression of Peterloo to piecemeal extension of the suffrage
How? Parliamentary politics!

3. Class Politics in Britain: The Corn Laws
Tory party (aristocracy) became fearful ; passed Corn Laws in 1815
Corn Laws: regulate import of foreign grain, cased serious shortages
Landowners profited from shortages by inflating prices
Prohibited import of corn unless domestic prices rose above 80 shillings a ton
Led to protests & demonstrations
1817: government suspended traditional right of assembly & habeas corpus
Give manufactures more outlets for their products.
Expand employment.
Lower the price of bread.
Make British agriculture more efficient and productive.
Expose trade and agriculture to foreign competition.
Promote international peace through trade contact.
1846: Tory PM Robert Peel joins Whigs to repeal Corn Laws & allow import of grain
1847: Tories passed Ten Hour Act
Prime Minister
Robert Peel

4. British Reform Bill of 1832 1820s: new men came into government
Sir Robert Peel revised criminal code, introduced municipal policy in London (hence Bobbies); repealed laws prohibiting unions; still restrictions on strikes
--> appeasement of WC
Duke of Wellington (Tory) appointed PM in 1828; pushed through bill allowing Catholics to sit in Parliament
New commercial & industrial classes wanted to be seen as equals of old aristocracy
Whigs propose extension of suffrage, Tories oppose
Whig Party (also aristocratic) was more accepting of new middle class
--> New wealth has an impact on Party Politics
1832 Reform Bill passed by House of Commons, but defeated in House of Lords
Whigs persuaded king to agree to make enough lords until it passed
House of Commons now had the political power--> triumph of new MC; Liberal NOT Radical
NOT universal suffrage: modes change; number of male votes increased by about 50%; 1 in 5 could vote; still needed to hold property

5. British Reform Bills
Still have a property requirement: not abolished until gave all men over 21 the vote & all women over 30
Universal suffrage achieved in all citizens over the age of 21
& older
US: voting rights determined by states
By about 1850 property requirements had been eliminated: universal Male Suffrage
15th Amendment race
19th Amendment gender
26th Amendment & older

6. The Chartists Petition presented in 1839, 1842 & 1848.
MC Success with suffrage & Corn Laws in Britain
--> Failure of WC Political Reforms
--> WC Social Reforms more successful - Factory Act; Trade Unions etc.
The Charter:
Drafted in 1838 by William Lovett.
Radical campaign for Parliamentary reform of the inequalities created by the Reform Bill of 1832.
Votes for all men.
Equal electoral districts.
Abolition of the requirement that Members of Parliament [MPs] be property owners.
Payment for Members of Parliament.
Annual general elections.
The secret ballot.
Petition presented in 1839, 1842 & 1848.
Rejected each time by Parliament

7. Revolutionary Movements in the Early 19c

8. Greece on the Ruins of Missilonghi by Delacroix, 1827
Greek Revolution
Greece on the Ruins of Missilonghi by Delacroix, 1827
Greeks had been under Ottoman control since 15th century
Alexander Ypsilanti lead a revolt in 1821; Great Powers refused to help because they saw revolution as dangerous
Many Europeans saw Greek’s struggle as a Holy struggle; Russians supported Greek Orthodox religion; English & Americans wanted to preserve classical Greek culture
1827 Great Britain, France & Russia called for Turkey to agree to an armistice; Turks refuse
Battle of Navarino; Br, Fr, Russia destroyed the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet.
1828  Russia declared war on Turkey; takes over much of Romania
1829  Treaty of Adrianople
1830  Greece declared an independent nation [Treaty of London].

9. The Decembrist Uprising - 1825
Russia:
The Decembrist Uprising
Russia: last Autocracy of Europe
Consistent failure of Reform: No Constitution, Tsar/Autocrat, State-dominated church
Legacy of Eastern Absolutism, lack of MC
Decemberists: a movement of westernized aristocrats  not from the MC/WC!
OR – akin to French OR; unable to reform itself
Russian upper class had come into contact with western liberal ideas during the Napoleonic Wars.
Late November, 1825  Czar Alexander I died suddenly.
He had no direct heir  dynastic crisis
Constantine  married a woman, not of royal blood.
Nicholas  named by Alexander I as his heir before his death.
Russian troops were to take an oath of allegiance to Nicholas, who was less popular than Constantine [Nicholas was seen as more reactionary].
December 26, 1825  a Moscow regiment marched into the Senate Square in St. Petersburg and refused to take the oath. They wanted Constantine.
Nicholas ordered the cavalry and artillery to attack the insurgents.
Over 60 were killed.
5 plotters were executed.
Over 100 insurgents were exiled to Siberia.
Results:
The first rebellion in modern Russian history where the rebels had specific political goals.
In their martyrdom, the Decembrists came to symbolize the dreams/ideals of all Russian liberals.
Nicholas was determined that his power would never again come into question  he was terrified of change!
Orthodoxy! Autocracy! Nationalism!

10. The 1830 Revolutions

11. France: The “Restoration” Era (1815-1830)
Louis XVIII
(r )
France emerged from the chaos of its revolutionary period as the most liberal large state in Europe.
Louis XVIII governed France as a Constitutional monarch.
He agreed to observe the “Charter” or Constitution of the Restoration period.
Basically a liberal constitution; protected economic & social gains of Revolution
Limited royal power.
Granted legislative power; created a Parliament
Protected civil rights.
Upheld the Napoleon Code.
France was divided by those who had accepted the ideals of the Fr. Revolution and those who didn’t.
The Count of Artois was the leader of the “Ultra-Royalists;” Louis XVIII’s brother
Louis XVIII moved the govt. more to the right
Changes in electoral laws narrowed the eligible voters.
Censorship was imposed.
Liberals were driven out of legal political life and into illegal activities.

12. King Charles X of France
Granted limited royal power.
Former Count of Artois
Goals:
Lessen the influence of the middle class.
Limit the right to vote.
1825 Law of Sacrilege -Put the clergy back in charge of education; death penalty for offenses such as stealing religious objects from church
1825 Law of Indemnity: Public money used to pay nobles for the loss of their lands during the Fr Revolution.
His downfall: increasingly repressive
1830 Election brought in a liberal majority.
His response: July Ordinances
Repudiated the Constitutional Charter
He dissolved the entire parliament.
Strict censorship imposed.
Changed the voting laws so that the government in the future could be assured of a conservative victory; took many wealthy & powerful voters off the rolls
Consistent with post Congress of Vienna Conservative Regimes: roll back the clock!

13. Workers, students and some of the middle class call for a Republic!
To the Barricades 
Revolution, Again!!
July “three glorious days” - the government collapsed
500 citizens and 150 soldiers died
Group of moderate liberal leaders, fearing reestablishment of a republic agree to give crown to Charles X’s cousin, Louis Philippe, duke of Orléans
Charles X flees to Britain
Louis-Philippe placed on throne as the ‘bourgeois monarch’
Workers, students and some of the middle class call for a Republic!

14. Louis Philippe  The “Citizen King”
(r )
The Duke of Orleans.
Relative of the Bourbons, but had stayed clear of the Ultras.
Lead a thoroughly bourgeois life.
His Program:
Accepted Constitutional Charter of 1814
Property qualifications reduced enough to double eligible voters. - added about 100,000 voters
Press censorship abolished.
The King ruled by the will of the people, not by the will of God - merely “King of the French people”
The Fr Revolution’s tricolor replaced the Bourbon flag.
The government was now under the control of the wealthy middle class; working class who had helped overthrow Charles X excluded
Triumph of MC Reform
His government ignored the needs and demands of the workers in the cities.
They were seen as another nuisance and source of possible disorder.
As public dissatisfaction increased, so did the government’s response in censoring the press
2 groups emerge in Chamber of Deputies:
The Party of Movement, led by Adolphe Thiers: wanted ministerial responsibilities, improved foreign policy & limited expansion in suffrage
The Party of Resistance, led by François Guizot: no need for any further changes
By 1840 Party of Resistance dominated Chamber of Deputies & worked with LP to pursue policy favorable to wealthier members of society

15. Belgian Revolution - 1830 The first to follow the lead of France.
Congress of Vienna had added the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) to Dutch Republic
Wide cultural differences:
North  Dutch  Protestant  seafarers and traders.
South  French  Catholic  farmers and individual workers.
In 1830 Belgians rebelled against the Dutch & managed to persuade other European powers to acknowledge their independence
New country = constitutional monarchy
King Leopold of Saxe Coburg

16. Polish Nationalism
The bloodiest struggle of the 1830 revolutions.
The Poles in and around Warsaw gain a special status by the Congress of Vienna within the Russian Empire.
Their own constitution.
Local autonomy granted in 1818.
After Tsar Alexander I dies, the Poles became restless under the tyrannical rule of Tsar Nicholas I.
Polish intellectuals were deeply influenced by Romanticism.
Rumors reached Poland that Nicholas I was planning to use Polish troops to put down the revolutions in France and Belgium.
Several Polish secret societies rebelled.
Hoped to get assistance from Britain & France, didn’t
Quickly & violently suppressed by Russians who set up a military dictatorship

17. Europe in 1830
The Concert of Europe provided for a recovery of Europe after the long years of Revolution and Napoleonic Wars.
The conservatives did NOT reverse ALL of the reforms put in place by the French Revolution.
Liberalism would challenge the conservative plan for European peace and law and order.
These revolutions were successful only in W. Europe:
Their success was in their popular support.
Middle class lead, aided by the urban lower classes.
The successful revolutions had benefited the middle class  the workers, who had done so much of the rioting and fighting, were left with empty hands!
Therefore, these revolutions left much unfinished & a seething, unsatisfied working class.