1. Digital Beamforming

2. Beamforming Manipulation of transmit and receive apertures.
Trade-off performance/cost to achieve:
Steer and focus the transmit beam.
Dynamically steer and focus the receive beam.
Provide accurate delay and apodization.
Provide dynamic receive control.

3. Beam Formation as Spatial Filtering
object
propagation
beam formation
Propagation can be viewed as a process
of linear filtering (convolution).
Beam formation can be viewed as an inverse
filter (or others, such as a matched filter).

4. Implementaiton of Beam Formation
Delay is simply based on geometry.
Weighting (a.k.a. apodization) strongly depends on the specific approach.

5. Beam Formation - Delay
Delay is based on geometry. For simplicity, a constant sound velocity and straight line propagation are assumed. Multiple reflection is also ignored.
In diagnostic ultrasound, we are almost always in the near field. Therefore, focusing is necessary.

6. Beam Formation - Delay
Near field / far field crossover occurs when f#=aperture size/wavelength.
The crossover also corresponds to the point where the phase error across the aperture becomes significant (destructive).

7. Beam Formation - Delay
In practice, ideal delays are quantized, i.e., received signals are temporally sampled.
The sampling frequency for fine focusing quality needs to be over 32*f0(>> Nyquist).
Interpolation is essential in a digital system and can be done in RF, IF or BB.

8. Delay Quantization
The delay quanitzation error can be viewed as the phase error of the phasors.

9. Delay Quantization
N=128, 16 quantization steps per cycles are required.
In general, 32 and 64 times the center frequency is used.

10. Beam Formation - Delay
RF beamformer requires either a clock frequency well over 100MHz, or a large number of real-time computations.
BB beamformer processes data at a low clock frequency at the price of complex signal processing.

11. Beam Formation - Delay q R

12. Beam Formation - RF e l m n t i A D C r p o a d g y s u

13. Beam Formation - RF
Interpolation by 2:
Z-1
MUX
1/2

14. Beam Formation - RF
General filtering architecture (interpolation by m):
Delay
Filter 1
Filter 2
Filter m-1
MUX
Fine delay control
FIFO
Coarse delay control

15. Beam Formation - BB e l m n t i A D C d o / L P F a y p h s r I Q
The coarse time delay is applied at a low clock frequency, the
fine phase needs to be rotated accurately (e.g., by CORDIC).

16. Autonomous Delay Control
A=n0+1-f
Dn=1
j=1
A<=0?
A=A+Dn+n0
j=j+1
A=A+j-f
Dn=Dn+1 N
bump n0 n1

17. Beam Formation - Apodization
Aperture weighting is often simplified as a choice of apodization type (such as uniform, Hamming, Gaussian, ...etc.)
Apodization is used to control sidelobes, grating lobes and depth of field.
Apodization generally can use lower number of bits.
Often used on transmit, but not on receive.

18. Range Dependence Single channel (delay). Single channel (apodization).
Aperture growth (delay and apodization).
1/R R R R R

19. Aperture Growth Constant f-number for linear and sector formats.
sector linear
Use angular response for convex formats. R R

20. Aperture Growth
Use a threshold level (e.g., -6dB) of an individual element’s two-way response to control the aperture growth for convex arrays.
element response
sinq

21. Aperture Growth R r q q’

22. Aperture Growth Use the threshold angle to control lens opening.
Channels far away from the center channel contribute little to the coherent sum.
F-number vs. threshold angle.

23. Apodization Issues Mainlobe vs. sidelobes (contrast vs. detail).
Sensitivity (particularly for Doppler modes).

24. Apodization Issues
Grating lobes (near field and under-sampled apertures).
Clinical evaluation of grating lobe levels.

25. Apodization Issues Near field resolution. Are more channels better ?
Depth of field : 2* f-number2*l (using the l/8 criterion).

26. Apodization Issues
Large depth of field - better image uniformity for single focus systems.
Large depth of field - higher frame rate for multiple focus systems.
Depth of field vs. beam spacing.

27. DS-Based Beamformers

28. Advantages of Over-Sampling
Noise averaging.
For every doubling of the sampling rate, it is equivalent to an additional 0.5 bit quantization.
Less requirements for delay interpolation.
Conventional A/D not ideal for single-bit applications.

29. Advantages of DS Beamformers
Noise shaping.
Single-bit vs. multi-bits.
Simple delay circuitry.
Integration with A/D and signal processing.
For hand-held or large channel count devices.

30. Beam Forming

31. Beam Forming: Conventional

32. Beam Forming: Delta Sigma

33. Dynamic Focusing Error
When relative delay is required, additional samples need to be inserted.
Reconstructed sample vs. direct representation.
The inserted samples must be cancelled out in the beam sum.

34. Dynamic Focusing Error Correction

35. Dynamic Focusing Error Correction
Using the delay symmetry:

36. Symthetic Aperture Imaging

37. Synthetic Aperture vs. Phased Array
Conventional phased array: all effective channels are excited to form a transmit beam. All effective channels contribute to receive beam forming.
Synthetic aperture: a large aperture is synthesized by moving, or multiplexing a small active aperture over a large array.

38. Applications in Medical Imaging
High frequency ultrasound: High frequency (>20MHz) arrays are difficult to construct.
Some applications:
Ophthalmology.
Dermatology.
Bio-microscopy.

39. Applications in Medical Imaging
Intra-vascular ultrasound: Majority of the imaging device needs to be integrated into a balloon angioplasty device, the number of connection is desired to be at a minimum.
multiplexor
imager
T/R
catheter

40. Applications in Medical Imaging
Hand-held scanners: multi-element synthetic aperture imaging can be used for optimal tradeoff between cost and image quality.
scanning direction
defocused beam
focused beam

41. Applications in Medical Imaging
Large 1D arrays: For example, a 256 channel 1D array can be driven by a 64 channel system.
1.5D and 2D arrays: Improve the image quality without increasing the system channel number.

42. Synthetic Aperture vs. Phased ArrayPA SA
Phased array has all N2 combinations.
Synthetic aperture has only N “diagonal” records.

43. Synthetic Aperture vs. Phased Array
Point spread function:
weighting
weighting
aperture
aperture d 2d

44. Synthetic Aperture vs. Phased Array
Spatial and contrast resolution:
phased array
synthetic aperture

45. Synthetic Aperture vs. Phased Array
Signal-to-noise ratio: SNR is determined by the transmitted acoustic power and receive electronic noise. Assuming the same driving voltage, the SNR loss for synthetic aperture is 1/N.

46. Synthetic Aperture vs. Phased Array
Frame rate: Frame rate is determined by the number of channels for synthetic aperture, it is not directly affected by the spatial Nyquist sampling criterion. Thus, there is a potential increase compared to phased array.

47. Synthetic Aperture vs. Phased Array
Motion artifacts: For synthetic aperture, a frame cannot be formed until all data are collected. Thus, any motion during data acquisition may produce severe artifacts.
The motion artifacts may be corrected, but it imposes further constraints on the imaging scheme.

48. Synthetic Aperture vs. Phased Array
Tissue harmonic imaging: Generation of tissue harmonics is determined by its nonlinearity and instantaneous acoustic pressure. Synthetic aperture is not ideal for such applications.

49. Synthetic Aperture vs. Phased Array
Speckle decorrelation: Based on van Cittert Zernike theorem, signals from non-overlapping apertures have no correlation. Therefore, such synthetic apertures cannot be used for correlation based processing such as aberration correction, speckle tracking and Doppler processing.

50. Filter Based Synthetic Focusing

51. Motivation Conventional ultrasonic array imaging system
Fixed transmit and dynamic receive focusing
Image quality degradation at depths away from the transmit focal zone
Dynamic transmit focusing
Fully realize the image quality achievable by an array system
Not practical for real-time implementation

52. DynTx DynRx
FixedTx DynRx
beam pattern

53. Motivation Retrospective filtering technique
Treat dynamic transmit focusing as a deconvolution problem
Based on fixed transmit and dynamic receive focusing
Synthetic transmit and receive focusing
Based on fixed transmit and fixed receive focusing
System complexity is greatly reduced

54. Retrospective Filtering
Where s: scattering distribution function, bpoof: out of focused pulse-echo beam pattern, bpideal: ideal pulse-echo beam pattern
all are a function of (R, sinθ)

55. Inverse filter Spatial Fourier transform relationship
Beam pattern  aperture function
The spectrum of the inverse/optimal filter is the ideal pulse-echo effective aperture divided by the out-of-focused pulse-echo aperture function
Robust deconvolution
No singular point in the passband of spectrum
SNR is sufficiently high
The number of taps equals to the number of beams
Not practical

56. where, b: the out-of-focused beam pattern, d: desired beam pattern
Optimal filter
Less sensitive to noise than inverse filter
Filter length can be shorter
Convolution matrix form
the mean squared error(MSE)
Minimize MSE
where, b: the out-of-focused beam pattern, d: desired beam pattern
f: filter coefficients

57. Pulse-echo effective apertures
The pulse-echo beam pattern is the multiplication of the transmit beam and the receive beam
The pulse-echo effective aperture is the convolution of transmit and receive apertures
DynTx DynRx
0.5 1
DynRx
FixedRx 5 10
For C.W.
R=Ro
R‡Ro 5 10

58. Experimental Results DynTx DynRx FixedTx DynRx FixedTx FixedRx
b filtered
d filtered a b c d e

59. Experimental Results -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0.05 0.1 0.15 -40 -30 -20 -10
0.05
0.1
0.15
-40
-30
-20
-10
sinθ dB
DynTx DynRx
DynRx
DynRx Filtered
FixedRx Filtered

60. Experimental Results
DynTx DynRx
FixedTx DynRx
FixedTx FixedRx