1. The Copernican Revolution
The Birth of Modern Science

2. What do we see in the sky?
The stars move in the sky but not with respect to each other
The planets (or “wanderers”) move differently from stars
They move with respect to the stars
They exhibit strange retrograde motion
What does all this mean?
How can we explain these movements?
What does the universe look like?

3. Timeline Galileo 1564-1642 Newton 1642-1727 Tycho 1546-1601 Copernicus
Kepler

4. Geocentric (Ptolemaic) System
The accepted model for years
The earth is at the center
The Sun, stars, and planets on their spheres revolve around the earth: explains daily movement
To account for unusual planetary motion epicycles were introduced
Fit the Greek model of heavenly perfection – spheres are the perfect shape, circular the perfect motion

5. Heliocentric (Copernican) System
Sun at center (heliocentric)
Uniform, circular motion
No epicycles (almost)
Moon orbited the earth, the earth orbited the sun as another planet
Planets and stars still on fixed spheres, stars don’t move
The daily motion of the stars results from the Earth’s spin
The annual motion of the stars results from the Earth’s orbit

6. In the heliocentric model, apparent retrograde motion of the planets is a direct consequence of the Earth’s motion

7. Geocentric vs. Heliocentric
How do we decide between two theories?
Use the Scientific method:
These are both explanations based on the observation of retrograde motion
What predictions do the models make?
How can these predictions be tested?

8. Phases of Venus
Heliocentric predicts that Venus should show a full phase, geocentric does not
Unfortunately, the phases of Venus cannot be observed with the naked eye

9. Geocentric vs. Heliocentric
Against heliocentric
It predicted planetary motions and events no better than the Geocentric system
The earth does not move (things do not fly off)
The earth is different from the heavens (from Aristotle – the heavens are perfect and unchanging) and cannot be part of the heavens
For heliocentric
Simplified retrograde motion, but epicycles were necessary to account for the planets’ changing speed
The distances to the planets could be measured. These distances were ordered, and therefore aesthetically pleasing to the philosophy of the day

10. Stellar Parallax
Parallax caused by the motion of the earth orbiting the Sun
Not observed with the naked eye
The heliocentric model predicts stellar parallax, but Copernicus hypothesizes that the stars are too far away (much farther than the earth from the Sun) for the parallax to be measurable with the naked eye

11. Misconceptions
The Copernican model has a force between the sun and the planets. Actually, the natural motion of the celestial spheres drove the planetary motions.
The Copernican model was simpler than the Ptolemaic one. In fact, though Copernicus eliminated circles to explain retrograde motion, he added more smaller ones to account for nonuniformities of planetary motions.
The Copernican model predicted the planetary motions better. Because both models demanded uniform motion around the centers of circles, both worked just about as well – with errors as large as a few degrees at times.

12. Galileo Galilei Turned a telescope toward the heavens
Made observations that:
contradicted the perfection of the heavens
Mountains, valleys, and craters on the Moon
Imperfections on the Sun (sunspots)
Supported the heliocentric universe
Moons of Jupiter
Phases of Venus – shows a full phase

13. Tycho Brahe
Had two sets of astronomical tables: one based on Ptolemy’s theory and one based on Copernicus’.
He found that both tables’ predictions were off by days to a month.
He believed that much better tables could be constructed just by more accurate observations.
Tycho’s homemade instruments improved measurement precision from ten minutes of arc (which had held since Ptolemy) to less than one

14. The skies change
Tycho observed 2 phenomena that showed the heavens DO change:
In November 1572, Tycho noticed a new star in the constellation Cassiopeia
Comet of 1577
Prior to this sighting, comets were thought to be atmospheric phenomena because of the immutability of the heavens
But neither the star nor the comet changed position as the observer moved, as expected for atmospheric phenomena

15. Johannes Kepler
Kepler succeeded Tycho as the Imperial mathematician (but at only 1/3 the salary of the nobleman)
Kepler worked for four years trying to derive the motions of Mars from Brahe’s observations
In the process, he discovered that the plane of the earth’s orbit and the plane of Mars’ (and eventually the other planets) passed through the sun
Suspecting the sun had a force over the planets, he investigated magnetism
While this is not true, it did lead him to the idea of elliptical orbits
“With reasoning derived from physical principles agreeing with experience, there is no figure left for the orbit of the planet except a perfect ellipse.”

16. Astronomia nova
Published in 1609, The New Astronomy was just that, it revolutionized the field
It predicted planetary positions as much as ten times better than previous models
It included physical causes for the movement of the planets
The ideas of the Greeks were gone – the heavens no longer were perfect, immutable, or different from the earth

17. Kepler’s first Law
The orbital paths of the planets are elliptical (not circular), with the Sun at one focus.

18. Kepler’s second law
An imaginary line connecting the Sun to any planet sweeps out equal areas of the ellipse in equal intervals of time.

19. Kepler’s Third Law
The square of a planet’s orbital period is proportional to the cube of its semi-major axis.
Kepler orbit demonstration:

20. Planetary Properties Planet Orbital eccentricity, e
Orbital semi-major axis, a
(Astronomical units)
Orbital period,P
(Earth years)
Mercury
0.206
0.387
0.241
Venus
0.007
0.723
0.615
Earth
0.017
1.000
Mars
0.093
1.524
1.881
Jupiter
0.048
5.203
11.86
Saturn
0.054
9.537
29.42
Uranus
0.047
19.19
83.75
Neptune
0.009
30.07
163.7
Pluto
0.249
39.48
248.0

21. Other Solar System Bodies
Kepler derived his laws for the 6 planets known to him. The laws also apply to the 3 discovered planets and any other body orbiting the Sun (asteroids, comets, etc.)

22. A force for planetary motion
Newton proposes a force which controls the motion of the planets – GRAVITY
The larger the mass, the larger the force of gravity
The further the distance, the smaller the force of gravity
Kepler’s third law can be derived from Newton’s law of gravity
F = GMm/r2 = mg

23. Gravity