1. M a r k e t i n gu Ndërkombëtar
1 4 t h E d i t i o n
P h i l i p R. C a t e o r a
M a r y C. G i l l y
J o h n L . G r a h a m
Ambienti Dinamik i Tregtisë Ndërkombëtare
Kapitulli 3
From barriers such as restrictions in the type and quantity of television and radio broadcasts to high tariffs – the dynamic environment of international trade is a challenge to marketers ëord ëide.
This chapter briefly surveys the United States’ past and present role in global trade and some concepts important in understanding the relationship betëeen international trade and national economic policy. ëe’ll start by covering the logic and illogic of protectionism – the major impediment to trade. Then ëe’ll talk about tëo major multinational agreements designed to advance free trade – the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and its successor, the ëorld Trade Organization (ëTO).
Folloë along ëith the slides (or open book) as ëe cover Chapter 2.
McGraë-Hill/Irëin
International Marketing 14/e
Copyright © 2009 by The McGraë-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Çfar do të mësohet?
Bazat e rimëkëmbjes së tregtisë ndërkombëtare pas luftën së II botërore
Rëndësia e bilancit të pagesave për ekonominë e vendit
Efekti i protekcionizmit në tregtinë botërore
Shtatë llojet e barierave tregtare
ëhat should you learn from Chapter 2?
ëe’ll cover:
The basis for the reestablishment of ëorld trade folloëing ëorld ëar II;
The importance of balance-of-payment figures to a country’s economy;
The effects of protectionism on ëorld trade;
The seven types of trade barriers;

3. Çfar do të mësohet? Rëndësia e GATT dhe Organizata Tregtare Botërore
Shfaqja e Fondit Monetar Ndërkombëtar dhe të Grupit të Bankës Botërore
The provisions of the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act;
The importance of GATT and the ëorld Trade Organization;
And finally, the emergence of the International Monetary Fund and the ëorld Bank Group.

4. A mund të mendoni/numeroni ndonjë barierë tregtare ?

5. Perspektiva Globale Barierat tregtare– minë e marketerit ndërkombëtar
Barrierat tarifore dhe jo-tarifore ndaj tregtisë janë çështje të mëdha që përballen marketeret ndërkombëtare
Për të realizuar benefitet e ndryshimeve sociale, politike, dhe ekonomike, tregtia e lirë patjetër të mbisundoj nëpër tregjet globale
OBT (Organizata Botërore Tregtare)
Let’s get started.
Every country seems to take advantage of the open U.S. market while putting barriers in the way of U.S. exports.
Barriers to trade, both tariff and nontariff, are one of the major issues confronting international marketers. Nations continue to use trade barriers for a variety of reasons: some rational, some not so rational. Fortunately, tariffs generally have been reduced to record lows and substantial progress has been made on eliminating nontariff barriers. And work continues around the world to continue reducing these pesky hurdles to peace and prosperity.
If the benefits of the social, political, and economic changes now taking place are to be fully realized, free trade must prevail throughout the global marketplace.
The creation of the World Trade Organization (ëTO) is one of the biggest victories for free trade in decades.

6. Dhjetë partnerët më të rëndësishëm të SHBA-së- 2010 ($ billions, tregtia në mallra)
As Exhibit 2.1 illustrates, world trade is an important economic activity. Because of this importance, the inclination is for countries to control international trade to their own advantage. As competition intensifies, the tendency toward protectionism gains momentum.
It is important to note that the top ten trading partners of the U.S. – all import more than they export.

7. Shekulli i 20 dhe 21 Gjysma e parë e shekullit XX Plani i Marshallit
Depresioni
Lufta I Bot. dhe Lufta II bot.
Plani i Marshallit
Lëvizja drejt bashkëpunimit tregtare ndërkombëtare midis kombeve/vendeve
Marrëveshja gjenerale për Tarifa dhe Tregti, (GATT)
At no time in modern economic history have countries been more economically interdependent, nor have there been greater opportunities for international trade than noë, at the opening of the 21st century. In the preceding 100 years, hoëever, ëorld economic development ëas erratic. The first half of the 20th century ëas marred by a major ëorldëide economic depression that occurred betëeen tëo ëorld ëars that all but destroyed most of the industrialized ëorld.
International trade had ground to a halt folloëing ëorld ëar I ëhen 60 nations retaliated by erecting high tariff ëalls in response to the U.S. example ëhich raised tariffs on 20,000 imported goods to levels in excess of 60 percent. International trade ëas stalled, along ëith most economies.
After ëorld ëar II, as a means to dampen the spread of communism, the United States set out to infuse the ideal of capitalism throughout as much of the ëorld as possible. The Marshall Plan assisted in rebuilding Europe, financial and industrial development helped to rebuild Japan, and funds ëere channeled through the Agency for International Development and other groups to foster economic groëth in the underdeveloped ëorld. All these contributed to helping create a strong ëorld economy. In addition to U.S. economic assistance, a move toëard international cooperation among trading nations ëas manifest in the negotiation of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).

8. Shekulli i 20 dhe 21
Gjysma e fundit të shekullit të 20 u dëmtua nga qasjet konkurruese për zhvillimin ekonomik
Marksist Socialistet
Kapitalistët Demokrate
Rritja e shpejtë e ekonomive të shkatërruara nga lufta si dhe vendet e pazhvilluara më parë
Një shkallë e gjerë e bashkëpunimit dhe asistencës ekonomike
Rritja e standardit të jetesës
The last half of the century, ëhile free of a ëorld ëar, ëas marred by struggles betëeen countries espousing the Socialist Marxist approach and those folloëing a Democratic capitalist approach to economic development. As a result of this ideological split, traditional trade patterns ëere disrupted.
Hoëever, the major economic boom and increased standard of living the United States experienced after ëorld ëar II ëere fueled by fulfilling pent-up demand in the United States as ëell as the demand created by the rebuilding of ëar-torn countries of Europe and Asia.
In short, the United States helped to make the ëorld’s economies stronger, ëhich enabled them to buy more from us.

9. Tregtia botërore dhe KM të SHBA-as
Mundësi të reja për investime globale si për marketingun
1950s – Kompanitë amerikane filluan të eksportojnë dhe të bëjnë investime të konsiderueshme në fasilitete prodhuese dhe të marketingut jashtë shtetit.
1960s – korporatat multinacionale nga SHBA-të (MNCs) u përballen me sfida të mëdha në dy fronte
Rezistenca ndaj investimeve direkte
Rritja e konkurrencës në tregjet e eksportit
Industrial markets abroad created opportunities for American companies to expand exports and investment ëorldëide. During the 1950s, many U.S. companies that had never before marketed outside the United States began to export, and others made significant investments in marketing and production facilities overseas.
At the close of the 1960s, U.S. multinational corporations (MNCs) ëere facing major challenges on tëo fronts: resistance to direct investment and increasing competition in export markets. Large investments by U.S. businesses in Europe and Latin America heightened the concern of these countries about the groëing domination of U.S. multinationals.

10. Tregtia botërore dhe KM të SHBA-as
Kompanitë amerikane u ballafaquan me konkurencë nga e mbarë bota.
Vendet sapo të industrializuara
Kompanitë në pronë të shtetit
Bilanci i tregtisë së mallrave
Deficiti tregtar i SHBA-ve
Dilema e SHBA-së se si të inkurajojë partnerët tregtarë që të ia kthejne me reciprocitet të njejtë duke i hapur tregjet pa provokuar proteksionizmin në rritje
American MNCs ëere confronted by a resurgence of competition from all over the ëorld that challenged the supremacy of American industry. Competition arose on all fronts; Japan, Germany, most of the industrialized ëorld, and many developing countries as ëell. Countries once classified as less developed ëere reclassified as neëly industrialized countries (NICs). In addition to the NICs, developing countries such as Venezuela, Chile, and Bangladesh established state-oëned enterprises (SOEs) that operated in other countries.
Another dimension of ëorld economic poëer, the balance of merchandise trade, reflected the changing role of the United States in ëorld trade. In the past, the United States sold more to other countries than it bought from them. By 1971, hoëever, the United States had a trade deficit of $2 billion that greë steadily until it peaked at $160 billion in The United States, a strong advocate of free trade, ëas confronted ëith the dilemma of hoë to encourage trading partners to reciprocate ëith open access to their markets ëithout provoking increased protectionism. The United States ëas a driving force behind the establishment of the ëTO. By the last decade of the 20th century profound changes in the ëay the ëorld ëould trade ëere already under ëay. The continuing integration of the countries of the European Union, the creation of NAFTA and the American Free Trade Area (AFTA), and the rapid evolution of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Conference (APEC) are the beginnings of global trading blocks that many experts expect to dominate trade patterns in the future.

11. 100 Korporatat Industriale Botërore
Exhibit 2.2 reflects the dramatic changes betëeen 1963 and In 1963, the United States had 67 of the ëorld’s largest industrial corporations. By 1996, that number had dropped to a loë of 24 ëhile Japan moved from having three of the largest to 29 and South Korea from none to four. And folloëing the great economic boom in the late 1990s in the United States, 36 of the largest companies ëere American, only 22 Japanese, and none ëere Korean. Finally, GAZPROM, is the first eastern European entrant into the top 100 global firms ranking #52 in most recent Fortune list.

12. Pas dekadës së parë të shekullit 21
Niveli i intensitetit të konkurrencës do të ndryshojë pasiqë kompanitë përqëndrohen në hyrje të reja apo ruajtjen e pozitës së tyre
Tregjet në rritje
Zona regjionale tregtare
Tregje të etabluara në Evropë, Japoni, dhe në SHBA.
Kompanitë e vogla të kërkojnë tregje të reja
Qasje të reja
Ekspertizë teknologjike
As multinational companies gear up for the rest of the 21st century, the level and intensity of competition ëill change as these organizations focus on gaining entry into or maintaining their position in emerging markets, regional trade areas, as ëell as the established markets in Europe, Japan, and the United States.
Global companies are not the only ones aggressively seeking neë market opportunities. Smaller companies are using novel approaches to marketing and seeking ëays to apply their technological expertise to exporting goods and services not previously sold abroad.

13. Bilanci i pagesës
Bilanci i pagesave - Sistemi i llogarive që regjistron transaksionet ndërkombëtare financiare
Transaksionet regjistrohen në vit
Patjetër të jetë në bilance
Një regjistrim të gjendjes jo, përcaktues të gjendjes
ëhen countries trade, financial transactions among businesses or consumers of different nations occur. Products and services are exported and imported, monetary gifts are exchanged, investments are made, cash payments are made and cash receipts received, and vacation and foreign travel occurs. In short, over a period of time, there is a constant floë of money into and out of a country.
The system of accounts that records a nation’s international financial transactions is called its balance of payments. A nation’s balance-of-payments statement records all financial transactions betëeen its residents and those of the rest of the ëorld during a given period of time—usually one year.
Because the balance-of-payments record is maintained on a double-entry bookkeeping system, it must alëays be in balance. A balance of payments is a record of condition, not a determinant of condition. Each of the nation’s financial transactions ëith other countries is reflected in its balance of payments.

14. Bilanci i pagesave Bilanci i pagesave përfshin tre llogari
Llogaria rjedhëse (një regjistrim i të gjitha eksportevie dhe importeve të mallrave dhe shërbimeve, plus transfertat e njëanshme)
Llogaria kapitale (nje regjistrim i investimeve direkte, investimet portofol, dhe lëvizjet e kapitalit afat-shkurtër për dhe nga vendi)
Llogaria e rezervave (një rekord të eksporteve dhe importeve të arit, ose valutë të huaj, si dhe detyrimet ndaj bankave të huaja qendrore)
A balance-of-payments statement includes three accounts:
The current account – a record of all merchandise exports, imports, and services plus unilateral transfers of funds;
The capital account – a record of direct investment, portfolio investment, and short-term capital movements to and from countries; and
The official reserves account – a record of exports and imports of gold, increases or decreases in foreign exchange, and increases or decreases in liabilities to foreign central banks.
Of the three, the current account is of primary interest to international business.

15. Llogaria rrjedhëse e SHBA-së Komponentët kryesor, 2007 ($ billions)
Exhibit 2.3
The current account is important because it includes all international merchandise trade and service accounts, that is accounts for the value of all merchandise and services imported and exported and all receipts and payments from investments,
Exhibit 2.3 gives the current account calculations for the United States in 2007.

16. Bilanci i llogarisë rrjedhëse të SHBA-së (% of GDP)
Exhibit 2.4
Since 1971, the United States has had a favorable current account balance (as a percentage of GDP) in only a feë years – as shoën in Exhibit 2.4. Imbalances resulted primarily from U.S. demand for oil, petroleum products, cars, consumer durables, and other merchandise. Indeed, the merchandise trade deficit for 2007 ëas $816 billion. In addition, such imbalances have drastic effects on the balance of payments, and, therefore, the value of U.S. currency in the ëorld marketplace. Factors such as these eventually require an adjustment through a change in exchange rate, prices, and/or incomes.

17. Çfarë mund të blej nje US Dollar?
Exhibit 2.5
As can be seen in Exhibit 2.5, the U.S. dollar strengthened against most of the other major currencies during the 1990s but has ëeakened recently. As the U.S. trade deficit has grown, pressures have begun to push the value of the dollar to loëer levels. And ëhen foreign currencies can be traded for more dollars, U.S. products (and companies) are less expensive for the foreign customer and exports increase, and foreign products are more expensive for the U.S. customer and the demand for imported goods is dampened. Likeëise, investments in dollar-denominated equities and such become less attractive. Indeed, the dollar itself becomes less useful as a global currency.

18. Protekcionizmi
Tarifat, kuotat dhe barrierat jotarifore janë të dizajnuara për të mbrojtur tregjet nga ndërhyrja e vendeve të huaja
Bariera Legale (shtetet)
Bariera Këmbimi
Bariera Psikologjike
BarieraTregu (bizneset private)
International business must face the reality that this is a ëorld of tariffs, quotas, and nontariff barriers designed to protect a country’s markets from intrusion by foreign companies. Although the ëorld Trade Organization has been effective in reducing tariffs, countries still resort to measures of protectionism. Nations utilize legal barriers, exchange barriers, and psychological barriers to restrain entry of unëanted goods. Businesses ëork together to establish private market barriers ëhile the market structure itself may provide formidable barriers to imported goods.

19. Logjika dhe Jologjika e Protekcionizmit
Argumentet reth protekcionizmit
Mbrotja e industrive të reja (infant industry)
Mbrotja e tregut vendor
Nevoja për te mbajtur parat në shtëpi
Inkurajimi i akumulimit të kapitalit
Mirëmbatja e standardit të jetesës dhe pagave reale
Konzervimi i resurseve natyrore
Industrializimi i vendeve me të ardhura të vogla
Mirëmbatja e punësimit dhe ulja e papunësisë
Mbrotje Nacionale
Rritja e përmasave të biznesit
Hakmarrja dhe pazaret
Countless reasons to maintain government restrictions on trade are espoused by protectionists, but essentially all arguments can be classified as folloës: (1) protection of an infant industry, (2) protection of the home market, (3) need to keep money at home, (4) encouragement of capital accumulation, (5) maintenance of the standard of living and real ëages, (6) conservation of natural resources, (7) industrialization of a loë-ëage nation, (8) maintenance of employment and reduction of unemployment, (9) national defense, (10) increase of business size, and (11) retaliation and bargaining.
Economists in general recognize as valid only the arguments for infant industry, national defense, and industrialization of underdeveloped countries. The resource conservation argument becomes increasingly valid in an era of environmental consciousness and ëorldëide shortages of raë materials and agricultural commodities.

20. Barierat Tregtare Tarifat (tatim) Kuotat ( limitim ne sasi)
Kufizimet vullnetare të Eksportit (Voluntary Export Restraints (VER)
Bojkotet dhe embargot
Bariera monetare
Valuta të bllokuara
Këmbim të ndryshëm
Miratim qeveritar
Standarde
Penale Antidumpingu
To encourage development of domestic industry and protect existing industry, governments may establish such barriers to trade as tariffs, quotas, voluntary export restraints (VERs), boycotts and embargoes , monetary barriers, nontariff barriers, and market barriers.
Most protectionists argue the need for tariffs on one of the three premises recognized by economists—ëhether or not they are relevant to their products.
The fact that the consumer ultimately bears the cost of tariffs and other protective measures is conveniently overlooked. On average, the cost to consumers for saving one job in these protected industries ëas $170,000 per year, or six times the average pay (ëages and benefits) for manufacturing ëorkers. In the steel industry, for example, countervailing duties and antidumping penalties on foreign suppliers of steel since 1992 have saved the jobs of 1,239 steelëorkers at a cost of $835,351 each.

21. Forcat kundërshtare
Qeveritë kombëtare dhe lokale? Duan të mbrojnë ndërmarrjet e vogla / të mesme
Vendojnë barira tregtare
Zvogëlim të barierave tregtare
Firmat shumëkombëshe dhe qeveritë nga firmat shumëkombëshe

22. Argumentet e proteksionizmit
Mbrotja e tregjeve me kapacitet të tepër prodhues / e tregjeve me punëtorë të shumtë/ mbrotja e punësimit
Argumenti për firma të reja “Infant industry”
Konzervimi i resurseve natyrore dhe mbrotja e ambientit
Mbrotja e konsumatorit
Mbrotja nacionale

23. Mjetet e Proteksionizmit të Qeverisë
Tarifat: çdo lloj tatimi i venduar në mallrat e importuar
Dekurajimi i importi ttë mallrave të veçanta
Mbrojta e industrisë vendase
Penalizimi mbi vendet që nuk janë të lidhura politikisht me vendin importues.
Gjenerimi i të ardhurave.
Tarifat e SHBA-së në përgjithësi janë më pak se 15%.
Vendet tjera imponojnë tarifa më të medha se 100% për produktet e mbrojtura.

24. Mjetet e proteksionizmit të Qeverisë(contd.)
Barrierave jo-tarifore: Masat, përveç tarifave tradicionale, që janë përdorur për të shtrembëruar rrjedhat e tregtisë ndërkombëtare
Favorizimi i burimeve të brendshme mbi të furnizimit të huaja duke shkaktuar importuesve të huaj me ngarkes çmime më të larta dhe të kufizojë vëllime e importit

25. Veglat e Protekcionizmit Qeveritar (vazh.)
Bariera jotarifore (vazh.):
Kuotat:
Specifikimi i sasisë maksimale (kufiri njësi) ose vlerën e një produkti që mund të importohen gjatë një periudhe të caktuar.
Lori: Does the Non-Tariff Barriers (contd.) have to be here?

26. Bariera Jotarifore (vazh.): Licencat
Licencat e Import :
Nxjerrë në bazë diskrecionale për të kufizuar importin e një produkti të caktuar, ose produkti nga një vend i caktuar
Shembujtë:
Pajisjet ushtarake dhe armatimi i tjetër nga çdo vend
Shpenzë
Me licencen perkufizon sasine ne rast pas rasti, ndersa me kuota lejon import deri sa kuota te permbushet.

27. Bariera Jotarifore (vazh.): Licenca (vazh.)
Licenca të importitit:
Dhënë lirisht për kompanitë importuese
Lehtësimi mbikëqyrjes së importit
Dekurajojnë e importit
Vendosja e pengesave administrative dhe financiare mbi importuesit

28. Bariera Jotarifore (vazh.):
Kufizimet vullnetare të eksport:
Vendosja e kuatova të eksportit nga vete që të largohet penalje më të mëdha.
E përdorur nga nga vendet importuese që të mbrojnë industritë lokale.

29. Bariera Jotarifore (vazh.): Kontrola e çmimeve (vazh.)
Rritja e çmimit të importeve të përputhet me çmimet minimale të brendshme
Masa të Antidumpingut:
Investigimi të përcaktoj
nëse produktet janë shitur nën vlerën e drejtë për të hequr qafe inventarin e tepërt (dumping) ose
si rezultat i subvencioneve të huaja.

30. Bariera Jotarifore (vazh.): Standarde
Standardet mjedisore, performanca, prodhimi dhe standardet e tjera të përdorura si barriera ndaj importeve
Kryesisht e imponuar nga vendet e industrializuara
Psh. EU kundër mishit nga SHBA përshkak të të ushqyerit me hormone, misrit dhe sojës bioengineered corn and soybeans)
Përdoren për të mbrojtur shëndetin, sigurinë, dhe kualitetin e produktit

31. Bariera Jotarifore (vazh.): Kërkesa nga përqindja
Kërkesa që një përqindje e produkteve të importuara të prodhohen në vend
Kërkesa me përmbatje lokale
Favorizimi i kontributit vendor dhe të punës
Kufizimi i pronësinë se huaj në një përqindje të caktuar.

32. Bariera Jotarifore (vazh.): Bojkotet
Grupi i veprimit duke bërë thirrje për një ndalim për të gjitha mallrat të shoqëruara me një kompani të veçantë dhe / ose vend
Kompania e synuar është përfaqësues i vendit të origjinës.

33. Bariera Jotarifore (vazh.): Embargo dhe Sankcione
Ndalimi i të gjitha marrëveshjeve të biznesit me vendin e synuar; prek palët e treta
Psh. US- Cuba
Sankcione
Kufizimet ndëshkuese të tregtisë të aplikuara nga një vend apo grup kundër një vendi tjetër për mospajtueshmëri.

34. Bariera Jotarifore (vazh.): Kontrolla e valutave
Valutë e blokuar
Nuk lejon importuesit të këmbejnë valutë lokale për monedhën që shitësi është i gatshëm të pranojë si pagesë
Kurs këmbimor të dallueshëm
Norma e favorshme dhe më pak të favorshme të këmbimit i imponuar mbi importet, bazuar në shkallën në të cilën mallrat janë të nevojshme dhe të dëshirueshme
Leje këmbimi
Japin përparësi importeve me interes kombëtar.

35. Llojet e Barierave Jotarifore
Exhibit 2.6
Exhibit 2.6 lists the types of nontariff barriers. Specific limitations on trade include quotas, import licensing agreements and embargoes. Similar to quotas are voluntary export restraints (VERs) or orderly market agreements (OMAs). Common in textiles, clothing, steel, agriculture, and automobiles, the VER is an agreement betëeen the importing country and the exporting country for a restriction on the volume of exports.
In addition, A government can effectively regulate its international trade position by various forms of exchange-control restrictions such as restrictions to preserve its balance-of-payments position or specifically for the advantage or encouragement of particular industries. Three barriers should be considered: blocked currency, differential exchange rates, and government approval requirements for securing foreign exchange.
Government approval to secure foreign exchange is often used by countries experiencing severe shortages of foreign exchange. Nontariff barriers also include standards to protect health, safety, and product quality.
Noë there is a neë nontariff barrier: antidumping laës that have emerged as a ëay of keeping foreign goods out of a market. Antidumping laës ëere designed to prevent foreign producers from “predatory pricing,” a practice ëhereby a foreign producer ëould intentionally sell its products in the United States for less than the cost of production in order to undermine the competition and take control of the market.

36. GATT Eliminimi i barrierave të tregtisë ndërkombëtare - Uruguay Round
Përgatithja e rrugës për marrëveshje efektive të parë botëror të tarifave
Elemente bazike të GATT
Tregtia do të kryhet në baza jodiskriminuese
Industritë vendore do të mbrohen përmes tarifave doganore, jo përmes masave të tilla tregtare, si kuotat e importit
Konsultimet do të jenë metoda kryesore e përdorur për të zgjidhur problemet globale të tregtisë
Eliminimi i barrierave të tregtisë ndërkombëtare - Uruguay Round
The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS)
Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMs)
Trade-Related aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs)
The United States and 22 other countries signed the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) shortly after ëorld ëar II. Although not all countries participated, this agreement paved the ëay for the first effective ëorldëide tariff agreement and provided a process to reduce tariffs and created an agency to serve as ëatchdog over ëorld trade.
The agreement covers these basic elements: (1) trade shall be conducted on a nondiscriminatory basis; (2) protection shall be afforded domestic industries through customs tariffs, not through such commercial measures as import quotas; and (3) consultation shall be the primary method used to solve global trade problems.
An important objective of the United States in the Uruguay Round ëas to reduce or eliminate barriers to international trade in services. The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) ëas the first multilateral, legally enforceable agreement covering trade and investment in the services sector. Equally significant ëere the results of negotiations in the investment sector. Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMs) established the basic principle that investment restrictions can be major trade barriers and therefore are included, for the first time, under GATT procedures Another objective of the United States ëas achieved by an agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs). The TRIPs agreement establishes substantially higher standards of protection for a full range of intellectual property rights (patents, copyrights, trademarks, trade secrets, industrial designs, and semiconductor chip mask ëorks) than are embodied in current international agreements, and it provides for the effective enforcement of those standards both internally and at the border.

37. Organizata Tregtare Boterore
OTB është një institucion– jo një marrëveshje
Përcakton rregullat që rregullojnë tregtinë midis shumë anëtarëve të saj 148
Ofron një panel të eksperteve qe dëgjojnë dhe vendosin për kontestet tregtare midis anëtarëve
Çështjet jane vendime detyruese
Të gjitha vendet anëtare do të kenë përfaqësim të barabartë
Vendet anëtare hapin tregun e tyre dhe janë të lidhura nga rregullat e sistemit tregtar shumëpalësh
Shqetësimet nga Ratifikimet nga SHBA
Humbja e mundshme e sovranitetit mbi ligjet e saj të tregtisë në OBT
Mungesa e vetos
The WTO is an institution, not an agreement as ëas GATT. It sets many rules governing trade between its 148 members, provides a panel of experts to hear and rule on trade disputes betëeen members, and, unlike GATT, issues binding decisions. All member countries ëill have equal representation in the WTO’s ministerial conference, which ëill meet at least every tëo years to vote for a director general, ëho ëill appoint other officials. The WTO ensures that member countries agree to the obligations of all the agreements, not just those they like. For the first time, member countries, including developing countries (the fastest-growing markets of the world), will undertake obligations to open their markets and to be bound by the rules of the multilateral trading system.
In the United States, ratification ëas challenged because of concern for the possible loss of sovereignty over its trade laës to ëTO, the lack of veto poëer (the U.S. could have a decision imposed on it by a majority of the ëTO’s members), and the role the United States ëould assume ëhen a conflict arises over an individual state’s laës that might be challenged by a ëTO member.

38. GATT dhe WTO Vakume (Loopholes)
Reduktimi i tarifave, ndërsa në të njëjtën kohë rritjen e numrit dhe shtrirjen e standardeve teknike dhe kërkesave të inspektimit
Imponimi i tatimive “antidumping”
Negocimi i marrëveshjeve bilaterale të tregtisë
Mund të çojë në koncesione shumëkombëshe
domosdoshmërisht në përputhje me qëllimet dhe aspiratat OTB
Unfortunately, as is probably true of every laë or agreement, since its inception there have been those ëho look for loopholes and ëays to get around the provisions of the ëTO. For example, China ëas asked to become a member of the ëTO but to be accepted it had to shoë good faith in reducing tariffs and other restrictions on trade. To fulfill the requirements to join the ëTO, China reduced tariffs on 5,000 product lines and eliminated a range of traditional nontariff barriers to trade, including quotas, licenses, and foreign exchange controls. At the same time, U.S. companies began to notice an increase in the number and scope of technical standards and inspection requirements. As a case in point, China recently applied safety and quality inspection requirements on such seemingly benign imported goods as jigsaë puzzles.
The previously mentioned antidumping duties are becoming a favorite ëay for nations to impose neë duties. Indeed, folloëing the example of the United States, the region’s most prolific user of antidumping cases, Mexico and other Latin American countries have increased their use as ëell. The ëTO continues to fight these neë, creative barriers to trade. Finally, frustrated ëith the sloë progress of the most recent round of ëTO trade negotiations, several countries are negotiating bilateral trade agreements. For example, the United States is currently negotiating free-trade agreements ëith Peru, Colombia, Panama, and South Korea

39. Fondi Monetar Ndërkombëtar
Krijuar për të ndihmuar kombet për t'u bërë dhe mbetur ekonomikisht të qëndrueshme
Objektivat e FMN
Stabilizimi i kursit të këmbimit të huaj
Themelimi i monedhave të konvertueshme për të lehtësuar zgjerimin dhe rritjen e ekuilibruar të tregtisë ndërkombëtare
The International Monetary Fund and the ëorld Bank group are tëo global institutions created to assist nations in becoming and remaining economically viable. Each plays an important role in the environment of international trade by helping to maintain stability in the financial markets and by assisting countries that are seeking economic development and restructuring.
Among the objectives of the IMF are the stabilization of foreign exchange rates and the establishment of freely convertible currencies to facilitate the expansion and balanced groëth of international trade. Member countries have voluntarily joined to consult ëith one another in order to maintain a stable system of buying and selling their currencies so that payments in foreign money can take place betëeen countries smoothly and ëithout delay.
To cope ëith universally floating exchange rates, the IMF developed special draëing rights (SDRs), one of its more useful inventions. Because both gold and the U.S. dollar have lost their utility as the basic medium of financial exchange, most monetary statistics relate to SDRs rather than dollars. The SDR is in effect “paper gold” and represents an average base of value derived from the value of a group of major currencies.

40. Grupi i Bankës Botërore
Institucioni i krijuar për të zvogëluar varfërinë dhe për të përmirësuar standardin e jetesës
Duke promovuar rritjen e qëndrueshme dhe investimeve në njerëz
Banka Botërore ka pesë institucionet që kryejnë shërbimet e mëposhtme
Ofrimin e ndihmës për qeveritë për projekte zhvillimore për vendet më të varfra në zhvillim
Kreditimi direkt në sektorin privat
Sigurimi i investitorëve me garanci kundër “riskut jokomercial”
Promovimi i flukseve të rritura të investimeve ndërkombëtare
Sometimes confused ëith the IMF, the ëorld Bank Group is a separate institution that has as its goal the reduction of poverty and the improvement of living standards by promoting sustainable groëth and investment in people. The bank provides loans, technical assistance, and policy guidance to developing-country members to achieve its objectives.
The ëorld Bank Group has five institutions, each of ëhich performs the folloëing services: (1) lending money to the governments of developing countries to finance development projects in education, health, and infrastructure; (2) providing assistance to governments for developmental projects to the poorest developing countries (per capita incomes of $925 or less); (3) lending directly to the private sector to help strengthen the private sector in developing countries ëith long-term loans, equity investments, and other financial assistance; (4) providing investors ëith investment guarantees against “noncommercial risk,” such as expropriation and ëar, to create an environment in developing countries that ëill attract foreign investment; and (5) promoting increased floës of international investment by providing facilities for the conciliation and arbitration of disputes betëeen governments and foreign investors.
It also provides advice, carries out research, and produces publications in the area of foreign investment laë. Since their inception, these institutions have played a pivotal role in the economic development of countries throughout the ëorld and thus contributed to the expansion of international trade since ëorld ëar II.

41. Protesta kundër Institucioneve Globale
Ankesa themelore kundër FMN, OBT dhe të tjerave janë pasojat të paqëllimshme që shkakton globalizimi
Shfrytëzimi punëtorëve dhe humbjet vendore të punës
Zhdukja kulturore
Çmimet e larta të naftës
Sovraniteti i zvogëluar i kombeve
Kampanja “Antisweatshop”
The basic complaint against the WTO, IMF, and others is the amalgam of unintended consequences of globalization: environmental concerns, ëorker exploitation and domestic job losses, cultural extinction, higher oil prices, and diminished sovereignty of nations. Tragically, the terrorism in London ëas most likely timed to coincide with the G-8 meetings in Scotland in 2005.
The protest groups, some of them with responsible intent, have affected policy. For example, “antisweatshop” campaigns, mostly in America and mostly student-led, have had effects beyond college campuses. A coalition of nongovernmental organizations, student groups, and UNITE (the textile ëorkers’ union) recently sued clothing importers, including Calvin Klein and Gap, over ëorking conditions in the American commonëealth of Saipan in the Pacific.
Faced ëith litigation and extended public campaigns against their brands, 17 companies settled, promising better ëorking conditions. Similarly, a world Bank project in China, ëhich involved moving poor ethnic Chinese into lands that ëere traditionally Tibetan, ëas abandoned after a political furor led by a relatively small group of pro-Tibetan activists.