1. Reinforcement Schedules
Pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced Ratio refers to the number of responses that are required before the reward is given. Interval refers to the amount of time between rewards.

2. Continuous Reinforcement
Reward following every correct response
Best used for establishing a behavior
Extinction occurs quickly
Examples?
Quick Acquisition
Quick Extinction
Partial Reinforcement
Rewards follow only some responses
Initial learning is slower.
Greater resistance to extension
Four schedules: Fixed-interval, Variable-interval, Fixed-ratio and Variable-ratio

3. Variable-Ratio Schedule
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
Example: One reinforce for 30 responses
Variable-Ratio Schedule
Reinforces after an unpredictable number of responses
Most effective
Example: gambling, hunting

4. Reinforcement Schedules

5. Fixed-ratio Schedules
Example: I give cookie monster a cookie every FIVE times he sings “C is for cookie”.

6. Variable-ratio Schedule
Example: I give Homer a donut at random times when he says “DOH!!!”

7. Fixed-Interval Schedule
Reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
Example: Weekly paycheck
Variable-Interval Schedule
Reinforcement that strengthens a response at unpredictable time intervals
Example: Pop Quizzes

8. Fixed-interval Schedule
Example: I give Bart a Butterfinger every ten minutes after he moons someone.

9. Variable-interval Schedule
Boss checking your work

10. Schedules of Reinforcement: Questions to Ask
1. What is the behavior and what is the reinforcer?
2. Is the behavior reinforced every time? That's continuous.
3. Does the reinforcement vary by time or by number? That’s intermittent/partial reinf.
time = interval
number = ratio
4. Does the schedule stay the same or change?
stays the same = fixed
changes = variable

11. FI, VI, FR, or VR?
When I bake cookies, I can only put one set in at a time, so after 10 minutes my first set of cookies is done. After another ten minutes, my second set of cookies is done. I get to eat a cookie after each set is done baking.
After every 10 math problems that I complete, I allow myself a 5 minute break.
I look over my notes every night because I never know how much time will go by before my next pop quiz.
When hunting season comes around, sometimes I’ll spend all day sitting in the woods waiting to get a shot at a big buck. It’s worth it though when I get a nice 10 point.
Today in Psychology class we were talking about Schedules of Reinforcement and everyone was eagerly raising their hands and participating. Miranda raised her hand a couple of times and was eventually called on. FI FR VI VR

12. Potential Applications & Problems with Operant Conditioning
Applications/Problems of CC Review: Cognitive Factors, Biological Predispositions, Phobias, Systematic Desensitization

13. Learned Helplessness
Repeated attempts to control a situation fail, you feel helpless (cannot change a situation, cannot escape punishment – often leads to depression)
ex: dropping this course because of poor test scores instead of improving work ethic

14. Intrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation
Desire to engage in activity for its own sake
INtrinsic – ‘Within’

15. Extrinsic Motivation
Desire to engage in activity for an external consequence
Rewards/Punishments
Grades vs. Bad Grades
Praise vs. Dunce Cap
EXtrinsic – ‘External’

17. How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning?
According to cognitive psychology, some forms of learning must be explained as changes in mental processes, rather than as changes in behavior alone
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

18. How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning?
Wolfgang Köhler
Insight Learning Problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions.. suddenly perceiving familiar objects in new forms or relationships
Skipping over a problem on a test only to realize later, in an instant, how to solve it. (aha! moment)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

19. Köhler observed the manner in which chimpanzees solve problems, such as that of retrieving bananas when positioned out of reach.
He found that they stacked wooden crates to use as makeshift ladders, in order to retrieve the food.
Köhler concluded that the chimps had not arrived at these methods through trial-and-error (Thorndike’s Law of Effect)
Rather, they had experienced an insight (also known as an “aha experience”), in which, having realized the answer, they then proceeded to carry it out in a way that was “purposeful.”
INSIGHT LEARNING
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

20. How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning?
Edward Chase Tolman
Latent Learning Hidden Learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
A child learns from their parent, but doesn’t demonstrate the learned behavior until it benefits them
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

21. Edward Tolman’s Latent Learning
Three groups of rats
Rewards given each time it completed the maze
Performance improved steadily
Rewards never given
Performance improved only slightly
Rewarded during 2nd half of trials but not 1st half of trials
Performance improved dramatically once rats were rewarded
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

22. Edward Tolman’s Cognitive Map
Mental Representation of the maze
Organisms learn the spatial layout of their environments by exploration, even if they are not reinforced for exploring
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

23. Examples of Cognitive Maps
Walking through your house in the dark
Giving directions
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

24. Observational Learning
In observational learning, an organism is conditioned vicariously by watching a model’s conditioning
ALBERT BANDURA
Psychologist who studied observational learning
Studied the consequences a model has on subjects

25. Bobo Doll Study
Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments.
Models (adults) would beat the doll
Adults would say “Sock him in the nose…” etc
Would the children model the behavior or not?

26. Bobo Doll Study
When children saw the violent model rewarded for aggression they behaved most aggressively in the playroom
When children saw violent punished, they behaved least aggressively
Bandura and many other researchers founded that 88% of the children imitated the aggressive behavior. Eight months later, 40% of the same children reproduce the violent behavior observed in the Bobo doll experiment.

27. Observational Learning Everyday
Antisocial Behavior – negative, destructive, unhelpful behaviors e.g. Children whose fathers abuse their spouse are more likely to be abusers themselves Prosocial Behavior – positive, constructive, helpful behavior E.g. You stop someone from being bullied and someone who saw you does the same thing

28. Research: Observational Learning
Viewing violence can increase the likelihood of aggressive behavior.
Viewing violence reduces our sensitivity to violence. (videogames)
Viewing violence decreases our concern about the suffering of victims

29. According to social learning theory, aggression is the result of which of the following? (A) The death instinct (B) Postconventional thought (C) Catharsis (D) Displacement (E) Modeling

30. When Mary was young, her father was trying to learn how to speak German and would listen to German tapes for hours in her presence. Mary paid very little attention to the tapes. Many years later, when Mary was in Germany, she was able to say a few German words in order to make herself understood. This is an example of (A) procedural memory (B) latent learning (C) regression (D) telegraphic speech (E) retroactive interference