1. Chapter 2 METHODOLOGY Research Design Population of the Study
Sampling Technique
Respondents of the Study

2. Chapter 2 METHODOLOGY Research Instrument Validation of Instrument
Data-Gathering Procedures
Statistical Treatment of Data

3. Methodology
This chapter starts with an introductory paragraphs telling what the chapter contains.
It provides a summary of pertinent details sufficient to justify the conclusion of the study.
If effectively written, this part of the study will enable the readers to assess the appropriateness of the method, the reliability and the validity of the results as well as permit experienced investigators to replicate the study if they desire.

4. Research Design Historical Method Descriptive Method
Developmental Method
Case and Field Method
Correlational Method
Causal-Comparative or “Ex post facto’ Method
True Experimental Method
Quasi-experiment Method
Action Research
Observational Research
Survey Research

5. Historical Method
Purpose: To reconstruct the past objectively and accurately, often in relation to the tenability of a hypothesis.
Examples:
RECONSTRUCTING PRACTICES IN THE STUDY OF SOCIAL STUDIES IN THE PHILIPPINES DURING THE PAST FIFTY YEARS;
TRACING THE HISTORY OF AGRARIAN REFORM IN THE PHILIPPINES;
PHILIPPINE EDUCATION SINCE 1946;
TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS THAT FRANCIS BACON IS THE REAL AUTHOR OF THE “WORKS OF WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE”

6. Descriptive Method
Purpose: To describe systematically a situation or area of interest factually and accurately.
Examples:
Population census studies, public opinion surveys, fact-finding surveys, status studies, task analysis studies, questionnaire and interview studies, observation studies, job descriptions, surveys of the literature, documentary analyses, anecdotal records, critical incident reports, test score analyses, and normative data.

7. Developmental Method
Purpose: To investigate patterns and sequences of growth and/or change as a function of time.
Examples:
A LONGITUDINAL GROWTH STUDY FOLLOWING AN INITIAL SAMPLE OF 22 CHILDREN FROM SIX MONTHS OF AGE TO ADULTHOOD;
A CROSS-SECTIONAL GROWTH STUDY INVESTIGATING CHANGING PATTERNS OF INTELLIGENCE BY SAMPLING GROUPS OF CHILDREN AT TEN DIFFERENT AGE LEVELS:
A TREND STUDY PROJECTING THE FUTURE GROWTH AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS OF A COMMUNITY FROM PAST TRENDS AND RECENT BUILDING ESTIMATES

8. Case and Field Method Examples:
Purpose: To study intensely the background, current status, and environmental interactions of a given social unit: an individual, a group, an institution, or a community.
Examples:
THE CASE HISTORY OF A CHILD WITH AN ABOVE AVERAGE IQ BUT WITH SEVERE LEARNING DISABILITIES;
AN INTENSE STUDY OF A GROUP OF TEENAGE YOUNGSTERS ON PROBATION FOR DRUG ABUSE;
AN INTENSE STUDY OF A TYPICAL SUBURBAN COMMUNITY IN LUZON IN TERMS OF ITS SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS

9. Correlational Method
Purpose: To investigate the extent to which variations in one factor correlate with variations in one or more other factors based on correlation coefficient.
Examples:
To investigate relationships between reading achievement scores and one or more variables of interest; a factor-analytic study of several intelligence tests; a study to predict success in college based on inter-correlation patterns between college grades and selected high school variables.

10. Causal-Comparative or “Ex-post facto” Method
Purpose: To investigate possible cause-and-effect relationships by observing some existing consequence and looking back through the data for plausible causal factors.
Examples:
To identify factors related to the “drop-out” problems in a particular high school using data from records over the past ten years; to investigate similarities and differences between such groups as smokers and nonsmokers, readers and nonreaders, or delinquents and non-delinquents, using data on file.

11. True Experimental Method
Purpose: To investigate possible cause-and-effect relationships by exposing one or more experimental groups to one or more treatment conditions and comparing the results to one or more control groups not receiving the treatment, random assignment being essential.
Examples:
To investigate the effectiveness of three methods of teaching reading to first-grade children using random assignments of children and teachers to groups and methods; to investigate the effects of a specific tranquilizing drug on the learning behavior of boys identified as “hyperactive” using random assignment to groups receiving three different levels of drug and two control groups with and without a pacebo, respectively.

12. Quasi-experiment Method
Purpose: To approximate the conditions of the true experiment in a setting which does not allow the control or manipulation of all relevant variables. The researcher must clearly understand what compromises exists in the internal and external validity of his design and proceed within these limitations.
Examples:
Most so-called field experiments, operational research, and even the more sophisticated forms of action research which attempt to get at causal factors in real life settings where only partial control is possible; e.g., an investigation of the effectiveness of any method or treatment condition where random assignments of subjects to methods or conditions is not possible.

13. Action Research
Purpose: To develop new skills or new approaches and to solve problems with direct application to the classroom or other applied setting.
Examples:
AN IN-SERVICE TRAINING PROGRAM TO HELP TEACHERS DEVELOP NEW SKILLS IN FACILITATING CLASS DISCUSSION;
TO EXPERIMENT WITH NEW APPROACHES TO TEACHING IN BILLINGUAL CHILDREN;
TO DEVELOP MORE EFFECTIVE COUNSELLING TECHNIQUES FOR UNDER-ACHIEVERS

14. Observational Research
Observation is essentially a technique for gathering data about the subjects involved in a study.
Therefore, it is basically a measurement technique that can be employed in most of educational research.
The great advantage of the observational process is that it enables the researcher to collect direct information about human behavior that can be collected only indirectly by measurement.

15. Observational research is especially effective in situations where the researcher wishes to study in detail specific areas of human behavior.
For example: What specific teaching strategy is most effective to teach basic number facts to severely retarded children?
How do pre school children respond to a television program that contains a high number of violent acts?

16. Survey Research
Survey research typically employs questionnaires and interviews in order to determine opinions, attitudes, preferences, and perceptions of interest to the researcher.
Perhaps the best-known surveys are those carried out by the various public opinion polls.

17. Survey studies that deal with sensitive topics, such as premarital sex relationships, or that attempt to elicit deeper responses can be easily measured with questionnaire, and frequently employ interviews. Some survey studies employ a combination of questionnaires and interviews; the questionnaires are employed to collect basic descriptive information from abroad sample, and the interviews are used to follow up the questionnaire responses in depth for a smaller sample.

18. Population of the Study
When you are writing the population and locale of the study factors like selection of respondents and setting of the study are considered. When determining the population and locale of your study, you may need to go back to your title and statement of the problem. Here, you conceive the target participants and where they are located.

19. Sampling Technique
Sample is the representative of your study used to answer questionnaires or participant. In a descriptive study, usually the respondents are very large. If you consider them all, it entails a lot of money, time and effort. When taken honestly and accurately, the sample could provide valid information similar to what is expected of the whole universe of the study. A sample is selected from a larger group, which is called a population.

20. Sampling refers to the method of choosing subjects in a particular study.
According to Best and Kahn (1998), the primary purpose of research is to discover principles that have universal application, but to study a whole population to arrive at generalizations would be impractical, if not impossible.

21. The Slovin’s formula is used in getting the sample (Pagoso, et. al
The Slovin’s formula is used in getting the sample (Pagoso, et. al., 1992) n = N 1 + Ne2 where: n = sample N = total population e2 = margin of error preferred

22. After combining the size of the sample, you may now determine the sampling techniques to be employed. There are two general types of sampling, namely:
Probability random sampling
Non – probability sampling

23. Probability Random Sampling
This type of sampling provides equal opportunities for the population to be chosen as participants of the study. This is commonly used in descriptive research.

24. Non – Probability Sampling
The selection of respondents is based on the convenience of the researcher and the purpose of the study. It does not involve systematic selection of participants. The qualitative studies like ethnographic case study and historical need not select respondents randomly. You would only include participants who possess characteristics that could provide information to the investigation.

25. Types of commonly used probability random sampling:
Simple random sampling
Proportional random sampling
Stratified random sampling
Systematic random sampling

26. Simple Random Sampling
This is the most basic and commonly used sampling technique in descriptive research. It can be done through the lottery method or fish bowl technique, roulette wheel method and with the use of the table of random numbers.

27. Procedures in obtaining the sample using the lottery or fish bowl technique:
Compute the sample size. This is to determine the actual number of participants to be drawn.
Determine where you will obtain the sample or the total population.
Design what you are going to use in the selection of respondents.
Make a listing or assign numbers to each of the total population, or make a code, as you find convenient to use.
Put them in a container or box, and then draw the sample.
After drawing the sample, refer to your listing and determine the actual names of the respondents.

28. Table of Random Numbers
Sample is drawn based on the generated random numbers contained in the columns with digits. The usual procedure of determining the sample size to be drawn from each of the participants is used because this will be the basis for drawing actual participants from the desired number of samples. The digits in the random table should equal the digits of the population.

29. Proportional Random Sampling
This type of random sampling is used when you are trying to pick out respondents from all levels or groups of the population. The word “proportion” means a representative based on the total population. The bigger the number of the population, the higher the proportion or percentage will be and vise versa.

30. Stratified Random Sampling
This technique of sampling is used by making subdivisions of the total population into smaller groups to represent the sample of the study. For every small group, the proportional sample will be drawn. In the event that each group still contains a large population after the subdivision is made, proportional or equal allocation may be employed.

31. When using this sampling method, the researcher has to divide the population into groups or strata into which he wants to stratify (e.g. by age, gender, religion, or other classificatory scheme). Samples are then drawn from each group through proportional or non-proportional stratified techniques.

32. Proportional stratified random sampling is based on the percentage of subjects in the population that is present in each stratum. Thus, if 30% is represented in the first stratum, then 30% of the final sample shall come from this stratum. In non-proportional stratified random sampling, the researcher selects the same number of subjects to be included in each of the stratum of the sample.

33. Systematic Random Sampling
This is sampling by regular interval or according to a predetermined sequence, such that every nth of the population becomes part of the sample. In using this method, the researcher has to determine first the sampling interval he will use.

34. To determine the samling interval, the following formula can be applied (Alreck & Settle, 1995): K = N n Where: K = sampling interval N = total population n = the desired sample size

35. Types of commonly-used non-probability sampling:
Convenience sampling
Purposive sampling
Quota sampling
Snowball Sampling

36. Convenience Sampling
The respondents are obtained based on the availability or preference of the researcher. Those that can be easily reached individually are usually considered. In a survey, only those with whom the researcher can easily communicate are chosen. This is also called accidental sampling.

37. Purposive Sampling
The sample respondents are chosen based on the criteria or purpose of the study. In writing an oral history of a particular community, those with personal knowledge, especially the senior citizens of the community who have witnessed the events discussed in the study, are chosen. This method of sampling is also called judgmental sampling

38. Quota Sampling
The word “quota” means desired quantity or allocation. As used in research, quota respondents are chosen based on characteristics needed in the investigation. For example, if the quota is at least 50 respondents, those who possess similar characteristics are included, regardless of how they are chosen.

39. The logic behind quota sampling is that certain characteristics describe the dimensions of the population. If civil status, for instance, has a bearing on the factor or characteristics the researcher wants to measure, then quota is allotted for single, married, widowed, and legally-separated research participants based on their respective proportions in the population.

40. Snowball Sampling
This method is used where respondents are difficult to identify and best located through referral networks. In the initial stage of snowball sampling, individuals are discovered and may or may not be selected through probability methods. The group is, then, used to locate others who possess similar characteristics and who, in turn, identify others.

42. Respondents of the Study
The researcher explains the characteristics of the respondents and the reasons why they are chosen.
The number of respondents depends on the extensiveness/intensiveness of verifiable data needed in the study.
After a thorough discussion of the number of respondents stated as frequency and equivalent percentage, the researcher provides a tabular presentation of the distribution of respondents.

43. Data-Gathering Instruments
Three important factors to consider:
The Research Instrument
Sources
Modes of Collection

44. Research Instrument
A device designed or adopted by the researcher for data-gathering.
To arrive at accurate findings and conclusions the instruments used by a researcher should be valid and reliable to objectively answer the purpose of the study.

45. The research instrument depends on the nature of the problem and the research design.
Descriptive studies usually employ questionnaires, interviews and observations.
Experimental studies may or may not use questionnaires but manipulate variable, observations, and documentations.

46. According to Fraenkel and Wallen (2003) data-gathering instruments are classified based on who provides the information, namely:
Researcher instruments
Subject instruments, and
Informant instruments

47. Researcher Instruments
In this instrument, the researcher obtains information or data himself with little or no direct involvement of other people.

48. Subject Instruments
The data is collected by directly involving the respondents.
Example: the data may be collected by asking for a copy of the available facilities and equipment, indicating actual numbers.
From the list, the researcher may determine extent of availability and adequacy.

49. Informant Instruments
The data is collected from those knowledgeable or aware of the subjects.
The researcher may ask school administrators, science teachers, and students to evaluate extent of availability and adequacy of facilities and equipment of the SUC’s in Region 1.

50. Commonly-used research instruments:
Questionnaire
Interview
Observation

51. 1. The Questionnaire
It is a written or printed form containing the objectives of the study.
This is administered on the respondents to elicit the required data based on procedures made by the researcher.

52. It is the most convenient and also the easiest way to gather data.
The researcher may or may not personally administer the questionnaire provided all instructions are clearly specified.

53. Two types of questionnaires:
Open-ended questionnaire
Close-ended questionnaire

54. Open-Ended Questionnaire
Respondents are free to answer the questions asked in the questionnaire.
This is the type of questionnaire when the researcher usually does not limit the information coming from the respondents.
The preparation is very simple. However, the difficulty is in data processing because you need to include and present common findings.
Frequency distribution is a common difficulty.
This is best suited for a qualitative research study.

55. Example:
Briefly describe the marriage practices of your tribe? __________________________
What animal/s and how many are to be butchered for the wedding? _____________
Describe the rituals of your tribe before, on, and after the wedding? _________________
Describe how dowry is practiced in your tribe? ________________________________

56. Closed-Ended Questionnaire
Calderon and Gonzales (1994) referred to this as the guided response type, closed form or restricted.
The respondents are guided in answering questions.
Options may be provided like in a multiple-choice tests while answers are based on the rating scales provided.

57. Example: Personal Profile: Sex: _____ Male _____ Female
Civil Status: _____ Single _____ Married
Academic Rank:
_____ Instructor
_____ Assistant Professor
_____ Associate Professor
_____ Professor

58. 2. The Interview
It involves face-to-face contacts between the interviewer and interviewee.
In research, the interviewer is the researcher and the interviewee is the respondent.
Sometimes a researcher interviews to confirm data obtained from the questionnaire.

59. This data-gathering technique is quite laborious especially when the population is large.
The researcher should personally meet respondents and needs to have adequate interviewing skills so that the objectives of the study may be achieved.

60. According to Sison (1991), the interviewer must be skilled in asking questions and sizing up people; keen and free of prejudices or biases; even –tempered, and most importantly, he must have a thorough knowledge of the subject.

61. Two advantages of interview method:
The researcher is given a chance to personally meet the respondents, thus greater validity and reliability of information is most likely to be obtained. Furthermore, his personal observations on the variables of the study contribute to a more comprehensive analysis and interpretation of the findings.

62. Dissemination of such results is perhaps more acceptable to the respondents because of their involvement. Their extent of involvement and freedom to express personal views will not only win social approval among respondents but also the policy implications derived from them.

63. Two types of interview method:
Structured Interview
Unstructured Interview

64. Structured Interview Method:
Sometimes called direct interview or formal interview.
In research, the interview schedule is formal, which is a set of carefully prepared questions, and their expected answers or responses are provided.

65. Example:
1. What is the extent of adequacy of instructional material in educational research? _____ Very Adequate _____ Moderately Adequate _____ Inadequate

66. Unstructured Interview Method
Also called non-directive or informal interview.
The researcher needs to be very skillful in asking questions. Likewise, the researcher should consider the position of the respondents so that they are free to express their opinions.
It is sometimes consuming but the respondents are able to give more information.

67. Example:
Describe the status of instructional materials for educational research?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

68. 3. The Observation
It is essential for both qualitative and quantitative studies.
This is used to enrich findings in descriptive studies where questionnaires and interviews have been employed.
In qualitative studies, observation is the primary tool.

69. There are times when people cannot completely express themselves thus, during the interview, constant observation and analysis of a given situation may be resorted to.
The researcher may thus come up with conclusions and generalizations using this method.

70. Two types of observation:
Informal observation
Formal observation

71. Informal Observation
Records only what transpires in casual conversation with respondents.
There is no limit when it comes to information; it depends on the results of the investigation.
Recommended for qualitative research.

72. Formal Observation
Sometimes referred to as structured observation which is the opposite of the informal.
The researcher makes a guide on what to observe.
Possible responses or answers may also be outlined by the researcher.

73. The purpose is to confirm the observations made prior to the actual conduct of the study.
Formal observation sometimes limits information. However, the process is very systematic and logical compared to informal observation.

74. Validity and Reliability of Researcher-Made Instruments
The researcher-made instrument is based on the problem of the study. It is done after reviewing literature that has significant bearing on the study. Before administering on the respondents, there is a need to establish its validity and reliability.

75. Validity
Validity refers to the extent of acceptance of the instrument.
The instrument is valid when based on facts; it measures what is intended to be measured.
Validation of instrument is the process of collecting evidences to support inferences.
This is done to come up with appropriate, meaningful, and useful data.

76. Reliability
This refers to the measurement of internal consistency of the research instrument.
It is widely used when the instrument in data-gathering is in the form of a test.
The test is reliable when administered repeatedly, providing similar results.
When a significant relationship exists after administering on a group of respondents, accuracy of the test is to be achieved.

77. To establish reliability of the research instruments data-gathering tools and procedures should be considered because the quality of the output depends on the instruments used.
The instrument will not elicit valid and reliable information when, in the first place, there is no evidence that such a tool is reliable.

78. Data-Gathering Procedures
This section contains the steps followed by the researcher from the time of the distribution of the instrument/ questionnaire up to the time of retrieval.
The researcher gives a brief but precise narration of the procedures and discusses the detail of every step taken in the course of gathering data.

79. Statistical Analysis of Data
Statistics refers to the techniques by which quantitative data are collected, presented, organized, analyzed, and interpreted.
Statistics in itself is a method that serves as the focal point of systematic analysis vis-à-vis decision-making or conclusion drawn from the findings.

80. Classification of Statistics:
Descriptive
Correlational
Inferential

81. Descriptive Statistics
Used to determine the nature of variables without any attempt to critically compare the extent of relationships or differences with other variables.
It gives information on the nature and characteristics of the problem.
The common statistical tools under descriptive statistics are: frequency counting, percentages, ranking, measures of centralities – mean, median and mode, and measures of variability.

82. Correlational Statistics
Used to determine the degree or magnitude of association between two variables, say variable x and Y.
What is the association of X with Y; or if the X value exists, what would be the value of Y?
These are some of the common problems that correlational analysis will answer.

83. Inferential Statistics
Used when an individual is interested in making inferences on the magnitude of differences of the samples obtained from a large universe.
Usually, the data obtained from the population and treated accordingly with the use of descriptive statistics is the input data in inferential statistics like the mean scores of students who take entrance examinations.
According to Pagoso and Garcia (1992), inferential statistics demands a higher order of critical judgment and mathematical methods.

84. Due to the increasing demands of a fast-changing society, sophisticated statistical tools are being developed in research.
The use of computer programs like the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) now minimizes the laborious work of processing and computing data.