1. Theories of Offender Treatment
Chapter 2
Theories of Offender Treatment

2. Introduction
Why do people rob? Why do people murder others? Why are there child sexual abusers? Why are there rapists?
For several centuries scientists have attempted to explain crime, its causes, and how it can most effectively be treated
These explanations are known as theories and are explanatory schemes that attempt to link events with presumed causes of those events
Probationers and parolees have been convicted of crimes and therefore have been studied by researchers attempting to uncover motives and intent
This research has led to the formulation of various treatments and interventions designed to rehabilitate offenders

3. Theories of Criminal Behavior
A theory is a set of assumptions that attempts to explain and predict relationships between phenomena
Functions of theories include explanation and prediction
Regarding probationer recidivism, we are interested why certain probationers commit new offenses
Observers disagree about the objectives of probation and parole, although most objectives include rehabilitation, deterrence, and punishment
Understanding causes of crime can help to design treatment

4. Theories of Criminal Behavior
Many theories of criminal behavior fall into three general categories, each of which stresses different causal factors associated with criminal behavior:
Biological theories
Psychological theories
Sociological or Sociocultural theories

5. I. Biological Theories
Biological theories of criminal behaviors include:
Abnormal physical structure
Hereditary criminal behaviors
Biochemical disturbances

6. I. Biological Theories Abnormal physical structure…Continued
Pioneer was an Italian physician, Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909)
He coined the expression “born criminals”
Lomboroso’s beliefs were developed during the period when Darwin’s theory of evolution was seen as credible in science

7. I. Biological Theories Abnormal physical structure…Continued
According to Lombroso:
criminals are by birth a distinct type
they have attributes like asymmetrical craniums, long jaws, and flat noses, scanty beards, low sensitivity to pain
these characteristics do not cause crime but can be used to Identify persons disposed toward crime

8. I. Biological Theories Abnormal physical structure (continued)
Lombroso observed that Italian prison inmates had long sloping foreheads, pointed ears, narrow eyes, and overly long arms
A positive outgrowth of Lombroso’s work was body types classified by Sheldon in 1949 into three types
Endomorphs (fat, soft, plump, jolly)
Ectomorphs (thin, sensitive, delicate)
Mesomorphs (strong, muscular, aggressive, tough)
Lombroso Developed crude indices from which generalization of criminal behavior by body type could be made

9. I. Biological Theories Hereditary criminal behaviors
Suggests the inheritance of certain physical and behavioral characteristics from parents or ancestors
Although there is little scientific evidence, theories such as XYY syndrome have been proffered
Regarding sex chromosomes, males are XY and females are XX
These chromosomes are inherited from the mother and father, the father gives the Y, the mother the X
Sometimes infants are born with an extra Y chromosome leading them to be prone toward aggressive behavior

10. I. Biological Theories Biochemical disturbances
Focuses on biochemical disturbances and glandular malfunctions as inducing criminal acts
Response has been to produce synthetic chemicals and administer them to the patients in hopes of controlling the abnormal behaviour caused by the disturbances
Many probationers and parolees who are sex offenders have to ingest various drugs to contain the sexual urges that they have

11. II. Psychological Theories
Involves studying individual behaviors to explain the inner workings of the mind
Psychological counselors and psychiatrists play key roles in rehabilitative therapy
The psychological theories include:
Psychoanalytic Theory,
Cognitive Development Theory, and
Social Learning Theory

12. II. Psychological Theories
Psychoanalytic Theory
Created by Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
Explained the human personality and mental disorders through the interaction of the id, the ego, the superego, and the libido
More than a few POs have bought into the idea that their clients have underdeveloped egos and psychological problems that need therapy and counseling

13. II. Psychological Theories
Cognitive Development Theory
Jean Piaget was one of the first to stress the importance of cognitive stages of development
Piaget’s notions have been expanded and modified by Kohlberg who has described 6 stages of development divided into 3 categories:
The preconventional level
The conventional level
The postconventional level
This theory proposes that criminal behavior is associated with inadequate development during childhood (Preconventional)

14. II. Psychological Theories
Social Learning Theory
Criminal behavior is learned by modeling the behaviors of others who are criminal
Doesn’t propose that criminal behavior is copied or imitated…Rather that those who learn behavior from others do so because of strong incentives
Deviant behavior is reinforced when persons observe criminals being rewarded with goods, money, or social status

15. III. Sociological or Sociocultural Theories
Focuses on social processes involved in criminal behavior as well as social structure
Social Process Theories Stress external forces as causes of criminal conduct
Popular sociological theories include:
Differential Association
Anomie Theory
Subcultural Theory
Labeling Theory
Social Control Theory
Conflict/Marxist Theory

16. III. Sociological or Sociocultural Theories
Differential Association
Formulated by Edwin Sutherland (1893–1950)
In a nutshell, association with criminals increases the chances that you will become criminal
Outlined a social interaction process that would induce someone to become criminal
An outgrowth of Cultural Transmission Theory (Shaw and McKay)…criminal culture transmitted through socialization
4 dimensions include:
Frequency
Duration
Priority
Intensity

17. III. Sociological or Sociocultural Theories
Anomie Theory
Anomie literally means normlessness, or a condition when the norms or behavioral expectations are unknown
Robert K. Merton is credited with developing anomie theory
People in society are taught to pursue culturally approved goals and socially approved means to achieve these goals
Merton constructed five modes of adaptation in dealing with these goals and means:
Conformity
Innovation
Ritualism
Rebellion
Retreatism

18. III. Sociological or Sociocultural Theories
Subculture Theory of Delinquency
During the 1950s Albert Cohen focused on and described delinquent subcultures
Cohen said subcultures existed within society but they contain value systems apart from the mainstream culture
If we want to understand why persons behave the way they do, we must pay attention to their subculture

19. III. Sociological or Sociocultural Theories
Labeling Theory
Edwin Lemert, Howard Becker, and John Kitsuse
Pertains to the social definitions of criminal acts rather than the criminal acts themselves
Labeling theory attempts to answer two questions:
What is the process whereby persons become labeled criminal or deviant
How does such labeling influence the person labelled as deviant

20. III. Sociological or Sociocultural Theories
Social Control Theory
Also called bonding theory and focuses on the aspects of becoming attached to society
The stronger the bonds between a person and society the likelihood to engage in crime becomes weaker
Hirschi’s social control theory
Bonding consists of several dimensions:
Attachment
Commitment
Belief
Involvement

21. III. Sociological or Sociocultural Theories
Conflict/Marxist Theory
Also called Marxist criminology, conflict criminology, critical criminology or radical criminology
Focuses attention on the people who have the political power to define crime
Society is divided into the haves and have nots, the poor who are manipulated and controlled by the haves, and the rich and powerful people who have vested interests in capital, industry, and business
Conflict theory is a general scheme to account for societal characteristics

22. Reality Therapy Reality Therapy
Reality therapy was created by William Glasser
Glasser rejected the idea that once a cause is known for a criminal behavior, the problem can be dealt with by having the probationer/parolee understand the problem’s origins
Reality therapy is a confrontational method of behavior modification where one’s criminality is simply unacceptable to a PO
People have two basic needs: a need for love, and a need for acceptance, self-worth or recognition
POs who practice this must acquire the trust of their clients, for their clients to feel free to disclose info

23. Social Casework Social Casework
Social casework is an intervention technique that is service oriented
It involves the development of a relationship between the PO and his/her clients within a problem solving context
Social casework rests on three basic premises:
Assessment or gathering and analyzing relevant information on which to base a plan for a client
Planning, or thinking about and organizing facts into a meaningful, goal oriented explanation
Intervention or implementation of the plan

24. Which Theory is Best?
There is no single theory to explain crime or criminal conduct that is universally accepted by researchers as the best one
Each theory has strengths and weaknesses and has exerted varying degrees of influence on the criminal justice system in processing offenders
Two important criteria for evaluating theories of criminal behavior are the extent to which they enable us to explain and predict that behavior
Evaluation of these theories suggests that creating a satisfactory theory stringently meeting these criteria is quite difficult

25. Theories About Delinquency
Assessing the importance of theories of delinquency is difficult
First, almost all causes of delinquent conduct that have been advocated by experts during the past century continue to interest contemporary investigators
The most frequently discounted and consistently criticized views are the biological ones
Psychological explanations seem more plausible than biological ones although
The most fruitful explanations for delinquency are those that seek to blend the best parts of the different theories that assess the different dimensions of youth
Physique
Intellectual abilities
Personalities
Social experiences

26. Treatment Programs and Theories
One way to evaluate theories is to examine successes that have resulted from applying the theories to the criminal justice process
Differential association theory seems influential in parole decisions and the conditions prescribed for parolees
Persons paroled are required not to associate with other known criminals as one of several parole conditions
Most studies of recidivism about youth show that minimizing formal involvement with the juvenile justice system are able to reduce participant’s self definitions (labelling) as delinquent