1. Dr. Deana L. Plaskon The Research Process and Strategy
Welcome to Unit 2
Dr. Deana L. Plaskon
The Research Process and Strategy

2. Unit 2 Grades Completed ? Questions? Unit 2:
Discussion Board Assignment
Individual Project Assignment

3. Unit 2 Prep days: Wednesday and Thursday’s of each week
Read: Chapters 2, 3 and 4 of the Creswell book
Learning Material available under Course Resources tab

4. Unit 2 – Individual Project
Assignment Type: Individual Project
Deliverable Length: 3–4 content pages
Points Possible: 100
Due Date:

5. Unit 2 - IP
Scenario: An insurance company has hired you to do an evaluation of its training program. Members of management are particularly concerned about the new-hire training for new insurance agents. This training teaches the agents about all of the different policies offered by the company for life, auto, home and health insurance.
Here is the current scenario:

6. Scenario Details
The current situation is that the company is paying each agent taking the course $300 a week while in training.
The training course lasts for 8 weeks.
This costs the company $2,400 in salary per agent during the training.
The instructor is paid $5,000 for the 8 weeks.
Other overhead expenses include site rental, supplies, and equipment, and they cost approximately $3,000.

7. Scenario Details
At the end of the training, the agents are assigned a trained agent to work with for 2 weeks (new agent pay is still $300 a week)
Then they are assigned a territory. 45% of the agents trained quit before the end of the time with the trained agent.
Another 20% quit or are fired within the first 3 months on the job.

8. Scenario Details
The company needs to find out what needs to be done to improve its hiring and training practices so that it retains more of the agents hired.

9. Individual Project Assignment
Your assignment is to develop a proposal (in APA-manuscript format) for data collection.
Specifically, you will be required to clearly explain and justify the data-collection plan you would follow to do the training program evaluation.

10. Unit 2 - IP
To recap:
45% of the agents trained quit before the end of the time with the trained agent.
Another 20% quit or are fired within the first 3 months on the job.
The company needs to find out what needs to be done to improve its hiring and training practices so that it retains more of the agents hired.

11. Unit 2 - IP Be sure to include the following:
The data you will collect:
Construct a data collection tool with a Likert scale.
The data collection tool should use 5 survey statements.
The Likert scale should include 5 categories from "agree" to "disagree."

12. Individual Project
Classification of the data as quantitative or qualitative
Description of why the data are needed
Description of who you will collect the data from (sample) and what method you will use to determine the sample
Technology options that you might use to collect data and why the selected technology is appropriate

13. Information on Collecting Data
Unit 2- IP
Information on Collecting Data

14. Unit 2 - IP
The first step in the process of collecting quantitative data is to identify the people and places you plan to study. This involves determining whether you will study individuals or entire organizations (e.g., schools) or some combination.
If you select either individuals or organizations, you need to decide what type of people or organizations you will actually study and how many you will need for your research

15. Unit 2- IP These decisions require that you:
decide on a unit of analysis,
the group and individuals you will study,
the procedure for selecting these individuals, and
assessing the number of people needed for your data analysis.

16. Unit 2 - IP
Unit of Analysis At this early stage in data collection, you must decide at what level (e.g., individual, family, school, school district) the data needs to be gathered. This level is referred to as the unit of analysis. In some research studies, educators gather data from multiple levels (e.g., individuals and schools), whereas other studies involve collecting data from only one level (e.g., principals in schools). The decision depends on your hypothesis and questions!

17. Unit 2 - IP
The group and individuals you will study A more advanced research process is to select individuals or schools who are representative of the entire group of individuals or schools. Representative refers to the selection of individuals from a sample of a population such that the individuals selected are typical of the population under study, enabling you to draw conclusions from the sample about the population as a whole.

18. Unit 2- IP Selecting individuals – continued
A population is a group of individuals who have the same characteristic.
A sample is a subgroup of the target population that the researcher plans to study for generalizing about the target population. In an ideal situation, you can select a sample of individuals who are representative of the entire population.

19. Unit 2 - IP
Assessing the number of people needed for your data analysis – sample of population

20. Data Collection Choose a qualitative or quantitative study
Determine your data collection methods (questionnaire's, interviews, observations, survey, etc.)
Develop a 5 point Likert Scale

21. Likert Scales
Likert items were first introduced in 1932 by Rensis Likert.
Likert was a psychologist who was interested in measuring people’s opinions or attitudes on a variety of items.
Likert scales can be 5, 6 point (middle scale) 7 or 9 point.

22. Likert Scales
5 point scales force participants to answer a question rather than.
In some cases there should not be a middle choice so that the respondents are forced to choose one side or the other.

23. Sample of 5 point Likert Scale

24. Sample of 5 point Likert Scale

25. Sample of 5 point Likert Scale

26. Scales of Measurement
Measurement in research occurs in many different ways:
Nominal scales categorize. A nominal scale can be based on natural categories like gender (male or female) or artificial categories like proficiency (elementary, intermediate, or advanced proficiency groups).
Nominal scales are also sometimes called categorical scales, or dichotomous scales (when there are only two categories).

27. Nominal/Dichotomous Scales
Nominal scales are sometimes called ‘labels’ and have no numerical data (qualitatively used)
Dichotomous
Nominal

28. Ordinal Scale Ordinal scales order or rank things.
An item might ask students to rank how satisfied they are with service at the bookstore (from 1 through 5).
Ordinal scales are typically measures of, etc.
non-numeric concepts like satisfaction, happiness, discomfort (qualitatively used)

29. More on Ordinal Scales
While the order is clear on such a scale, it is not clear what the distances are along the ordering.
The 1st activity might be much more interesting than the 2nd, but the 2nd activity might be only a
little more interesting than the 3rd, and so forth. In short, ordinal scales show us the order, but not the distances between the rankings.
Sometimes called ranked scales.

30. Interval Scales
Interval scales show the order of things, but with equal intervals between the points on the scale.
The classic example of an interval scale is Celsius temperature because the difference between each value is the same.  
For example, the difference between 60 and 50 degrees is a measurable 10 degrees, as is the difference between 80 and 70 degrees.  

31. Interval Scales
Look at the difference between 36 degrees and 37 degrees compared to the difference between 40 degrees and 41 degrees on either Fahrenheit or Celsius temperatures?
Is the difference the same? Because the differences in the numbers are the same, when you have an interval variable you know temperature intervals are the same.
SAT, GRE, MAT, and IQ scores are also measured in intervals!
Quantitatively driven

32. Interval Scales
Interval” itself means “space in between,” which is the important thing to remember–interval scales not only tell us about order, but also about the value between each item.
The problem with interval scales: they do not have a “true zero.”  
For example, there is no such thing as “no temperature.”  Without a true zero, it is impossible to compute ratios.  With interval data, we can add and subtract, but cannot multiply or divide.  

33. Ratio Scales
Interval scales are great, but we cannot calculate ratios, which brings us to our last measurement scale…
Ratio scales are the BEST when it comes to measurement scales because they tell us about the order, they tell us the exact value between units, AND they also have an absolute zero–which allows for a wide range of descriptive and inferential statistics to apply.

34. Ratio Scales Height and weight are a good example of ratio scales!
Pulse rates are measured on ratio scales

35. What Type of Scale (Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio)
Picture B
Picture A

36. What type of measurement is this?

37. To End Likert Scales
So, Likert scales are ordinal measurements of information! The Likert scale is the type of measurement and ordinal is the name of the measure.

38. Unit 2 – Discussion Board
Reading Assignment: Creswell Chapters 2, 3, & 4
Assignment Type: Discussion Board
Deliverable Length: 3–4 Paragraphs
Points Possible: 50
Due Date:

39. Unit 2 Discussion Board Part A
Research methods vary and different approaches are needed. A magazine editor in a small town would like to include articles on several topics in the next issue.

40. Unit 2 – Discussion Board
An important part of beginning a research project is being able to review literature and analyze the implications of already completed research methods, data, and findings.
Researchers must have a solid foundational mastery of differences between research methods, data collection, and reporting. For this discussion board, discuss the following information:

41. Discussion Board
Decide which of the following proposed article topics are suitable for a quantitative or qualitative research, and explain why.
Coin collections
Favorite recipes
Rising home costs
Best high schools
Carpools
Political polls
Parent teacher participation
Book fairs

42. Discussion Board – Part B

43. To Recap Discussion Board:
Give a definition of a hypothesis and a null hypothesis and identify the method of research that uses a hypothesis.
Discuss what you believe are the key elements of a well-written set of hypotheses. Support your opinion with appropriate peer-reviewed sources other than the textbook.
Give a definition of a research question or problem and identify the method of research that traditionally uses a research question or problem.
Discuss what you believe are the key elements of a well-written research question or problem.
Support your answer with appropriate peer-reviewed sources (other than the textbook).

44. Discussion Board – Part 2
Discuss how selecting a sample to study differs between quantitative and qualitative methods.
Describe 2 data-collection instruments, and determine whether the instrument will be used to collect quantitative or qualitative data.
Explain how analysis of quantitative data differs from analysis of qualitative data.

45. Let us discuss Qualitative and Quantitative Differences

46. Qualitative/Quantitative Differences
Typically qualitative data involves words and quantitative data involves numbers; however, there are some researchers who feel that one is better (or more scientific) than the other.
Another major difference between the two is that qualitative research is inductive and quantitative research is deductive (begins with a hypothesis).

47. Differences
In qualitative research, a hypothesis is not needed to begin research. However, all quantitative research requires a hypothesis before research can begin.
Another major difference between qualitative and quantitative research is the underlying assumptions about the role of the researcher.

48. Differences
In quantitative research, the researcher is ideally an objective observer that neither participates in nor influences what is being studied.
In qualitative research, the researcher can learn the most about a situation by participating and/or being immersed in it.

49. Differences
Quantitative research often "forces" responses or people into categories that might not "fit" in order to make meaning.
Qualitative research, sometimes focuses too closely on individual results and fails to make connections to larger situations or possible causes of the results.
Rather than discounting either approach for its drawbacks, though, researchers should find the most effective ways to incorporate the best approach to ensure that their studies are as accurate and thorough as possible.

50. Research Methods Qualitatiave Designs
Research Design – Case Study Case studies examine individuals or small groups (organizations, entities) within a specific context.
Research is typically gathered through qualitative means: interviews, observations, etc. Data is usually analyzed either holistically or by coding methods.

51. Research Methods Assumptions
In research involving case studies, a researcher typically assumes that the results will be transferable. Generalizing is difficult or impossible because one person or small group cannot represent all similar groups or situations.
For example, one group of beginning writing students in a particular classroom cannot represent all beginning student writers.
Also, conclusions drawn in case studies are only about the participants being observed. With rare exceptions, case studies are not meant to establish cause/effect relationships between variables. The results of a case study are transferable in that researchers "suggest further questions, hypotheses, and future implications," and present the results as "directions and questions.”

52. Hypothesis
Let us discuss hypothesis – used for quantitative research methods only!

53. Hypothesis
Hypothesis: A tentative explanation based on theory to predict a causal relationship between variables.
A good hypothesis is testable!
A hypothesis is H1

54. Null Hypothesis
The null hypothesis is a hypothesis which the researcher tries to disprove, reject or nullify.
The 'null' often refers to the common view of something, while the alternative hypothesis is what the researcher really thinks is the cause of a phenomenon.
An experiment conclusion always refers to the null, rejecting or accepting H0 rather than H1.
Despite this, many researchers neglect the null hypothesis when testing hypotheses, which is poor practice and can have adverse effects.

55. Hypothesis A researcher may postulate a hypothesis:
H1: Tomato plants exhibit a higher rate of growth when planted in compost rather than in soil.
And a null hypothesis:
H0: Tomato plants do not exhibit a higher rate of growth when planted in compost rather than soil.

56. Hypothesis from a different view
Imagine that you are a scientist. Are you in character?
Now in order to get that Nobel Prize you’re going to have to come up with something pretty darn brilliant.
So let’s say you have some rather exciting ideas about why you seem to lose socks at an astonishing rate. Maybe, you hypothesize, aliens are beaming down to steal one sock out of every pair you own. Hypothesis: the loss of my socks is due to alien burglary.

57. Hypothesis
In order to test whether your hypothesis is true or not, you have to carry out some research to see if you can back it up.
So you set up a hi-tech alien detection system and record whether times of alien activity are correlated with when your socks go missing (data collection).

58. Hypothesis
When you get your results, it’s possible that any relationship that appears in your data was produced by random chance.
In order to back up your hypothesis you need to compare the results against the opposite situation: that the loss of socks is not due to alien burglary. This is your null hypothesis – the assertion that the things you were testing (i.e. rates of alien activity and sock loss) are not related and your results are the product of random chance events.

59. Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis: the loss of my socks is nothing to do with alien burglary.
Alternate Hypothesis: the loss of my socks is due to alien burglary.

60. Hypothesis
The next step is to compare these two alternatives using the magic of… (cue dramatic music)… statistics. In statistics, the only way of supporting your hypothesis is to refute the null hypothesis. Rather than trying to prove your idea (the alternate hypothesis) right you must show that the null hypothesis is likely to be wrong –
you have to ‘refute’ or ‘nullify’ the null hypothesis.
Unfortunately you have to assume that your alternate hypothesis is wrong until you find evidence to the contrary. So it’s innocent until proven guilty for the aliens

61. Example

62. FUN EXERCISE
Let us try this fun exercise on hypothesis and null hypothesis!

63. Choose one and write the null hypothesis for it in the chat area!
Hypothesis Examples
Choose one and write the null hypothesis for it in the chat area!
If you leave the lights on, then it will take longer for people to fall asleep. H1
If you refrigerate apples, they will last longer before going bad. H1
If you keep the curtains closed, then less electricity will be used to heat or cool the house (electric bill will be lower). H1
If you leave a bucket of water uncovered, then it will evaporate more quickly. H1
Goldfish lose their color if they are not exposed to light. H1
Workers who take vacations are more productive than those who never take time off. H1

64. Understanding the Research Question
A Research Question is a statement that identifies the phenomenon to be studied.
For example, “What resources are helpful to new and minority drug abuse researchers?”
To develop a strong research question from your ideas, you should ask yourself these things:

65. Research Questions Do I know the field and its literature well?
What are the important research questions in my field?
What areas need further exploration?

66. Understanding the Research Question
Address these questions when determining your research questions:
Could my study fill a gap? Lead to greater understanding?
Has a great deal of research already been conducted in this topic area?
Has this study been done before? If so, is there room for improvement?

67. Understanding the Research Question
Is the timing right for this question to be answered? Is it a hot topic, or is it becoming obsolete?
Would funding sources be interested?
If you are proposing a service program, is the target community interested?
Most importantly, will my study have a significant impact on the field?

68. 3 Types of Research Questions

69. Example of Research Question
Topic Idea: Media Bias
Research Question: What is the relationship between news reporting and
maintaining objectivity?
Thesis Statement: Mainstream media and news organizations present news that does not support objective information and serves to favor one policitical party over another.

70. Research Question
A strong research idea should pass the “so what” test.
Think about the potential impact of the research you are proposing.
What is the benefit of answering your research question? Who will it help (and how)? If you cannot make a definitive statement about the purpose of your research, it is unlikely to be funded.

71. Research Question A research focus should be narrow, not broad-based.
For example:
“What can be done to prevent substance abuse?” is too large a question to answer.
It would be better to begin with a more focused question such as
“What is the relationship between specific early childhood experiences and subsequent substance-abusing behaviors?”

72. Research Question
If you choose juvenile delinquency (a topic that can be researched), you might ask the following questions:
What is the 1994 rate of juvenile delinquency in the U.S.?
What can we do to reduce juvenile delinquency in the U.S.?
What is the relationship in education in reducing juvenile delinquents' return to crime?
Once you complete your list, review your questions in order to choose a usable one that is neither too broad nor too narrow.
In this case, the best research question is "c." Question "a" is too narrow, since it can be answered with a simple statistic. Question "b" is too broad; it implies that the researcher will cover many tactics for reducing juvenile delinquency that could be used throughout the country. Question "c,” is focused enough to research in some depth.

73. Research Question

74. Methods Used Qualitative Methods: Interviews Focus Groups Observations
The types of data these three methods generate are field notes, audio (and sometimes video) recordings, and transcripts.

75. Methods Used - Qualitative
Qualitative techniques used:
Interview
Observation
Correspondence ( s, letters, memos)
Diaries
Audio recordings
Video recordings
Feedback forms
Pictures
Artefacts (products)
To gain insight into:
attitudes,
behaviours,
value systems,
concerns,
motivations,
aspirations,
culture.
lifestyles.

76. Methods Used Quantitative Methods Questionnaires Scales Tests
Inventories

77. Differences in Qual/Quant
Qualitative Quantitative __________________________________________________________________________ 1. Philosophy: Depends Depends 2. Goal: Understand, meaning Prediction, test hypothesis 3. Focus: Quality (features) Quantity (how much, numbers) 4. Method: Ethnography/Action research Experiments/Correlation 5. Data collection: Interviews, observation Questionnaire, scales, documents, artefacts tests, inventories 6. Research Design: Flexible, emerging Structured, predetermined 7. Sample: Small, purposeful Large, random, representation 8. Generalisation: Unique case selection Generalisation 9. Analysis Inductive (by the researcher) Deductive (by statistical methods) 10. Role of Researcher: Immersed Detached

78. Methods Differences
Quantitative and qualitative research methods differ primarily in:
• their analytical objectives
• the types of questions they pose
• the types of data collection instruments they use
• the forms of data they produce
• the degree of flexibility built into study design

79. Unit 2
Questions?
Microphone Testing?