1. Global Business Today 10e
by Charles W.L. Hill
and G. Tomas M. Hult

2. The Global Monetary System
Source: © ICP-Tech/incamerastock/Alamy Stock Photo
Chapter 10: The Foreign Exchange Market

3. Learning Objectives
LO 10-1 Describe the functions of the foreign exchange market. LO 10-2 Understand what is meant by spot exchange rates. LO 10-3 Recognize the role that forward exchange rates play in insuring against foreign exchange risk. LO 10-4 Understand the different theories explaining how currency exchange rates are determined and their relative merits. LO 10-5 Identify the merits of different approaches toward exchange rate forecasting. LO 10-6 Compare and contrast the differences among translation, transaction, and economic exposure, and explain the implications for management practice.

4. Opening Case: Apple’s Earnings Hit by Strong Dollar
Apple reported in January 2016 that strong U.S. dollar had cost company nearly $5 billion in revenue
Apple gets 66% of its revenue from outside of U.S.
Apple has been buying currency forward to hedge against future increases but dollar has been appreciating faster
Apple has had to implement price increases in some markets
Other major technology companies having same issues
Dollar now stronger
U.S. economy stronger so attractive for foreign capital
European and Japanese governments have lowered interest rates
Developing nations have downward pressures on their currencies
With regard to specific currencies, between September 1, 2014, and March 21, 2016, the U.S. dollar appreciated by 17 percent against the euro, 15 percent against the British pound, 5 percent against the Chinese yuan, 21 percent against the Canadian dollar, 33 percent against the Mexican peso, 62 percent against the Brazilian real, and 82 percent against the Russian ruble. Cook referred to these moves, and others like them, as constituting "extreme conditions unlike anything we have seen before just about everywhere we look.
The conditions that have led to an increase in the value of the dollar are unlikely to change in the near future. For companies like Apple, this means that they must adopt strategies to hedge against further increases. At the same time, too much hedging can expose the company to significant financial risks if the dollar does not move in the predicted direction. It is crucial, therefore, for Apple to get its hedging strategy right.

5. Introduction
The foreign exchange market is a market for converting the currency of one country into that of another country
An exchange rate is the rate at which one currency is converted into another

6. The Functions of the Foreign Exchange Market 1 of 6
Enables the conversion of the currency of one country into the currency of another
Provides some insurance against foreign exchange risk: the adverse consequences of unpredictable changes in exchange rates
LO 10-1 Describe the functions of the foreign exchange market.

7. The Functions of the Foreign Exchange Market 2 of 6
Currency Conversion
To convert export receipts, income received from foreign investments, or income received from licensing agreements
To pay a foreign company for products or services
To invest spare cash for short terms in money markets
For currency speculation: the short-term movement of funds from one currency to another in the hopes of profiting from shifts in exchange rates
Carry trade borrows one currency where interest rates are low and invests these in another currency where interest rates are high
Carry trade, which involves borrowing in one currency where interest rates are low and then using the proceeds to invest in another currency where interest rates are high, has become a more common form of speculation.
Internet Extra: To see real time currency conversions, go to XE.com {
Click on Quick Currency converter, and enter the currencies you want to convert.

8. Currency Exchange
Every time tourists change money in a foreign country they are participating in the foreign exchange market.
Source: © Ed Brown/Alamy Stock Photo

9. Should Countries Be Free to Set Currency Policy?
Exchange rates are critically important in the global economy. They affect the price of every country’s imports and exports, companies’ foreign direct investment, and—directly or indirectly— people’s spending behaviors. In recent years, disagreements among countries over exchange rates have become much more widespread. Some government officials and analysts even suggest that there is a “currency war” among certain countries. The main issue is whether or not some countries are using exchange rate policies to undermine free currency markets and whether they intentionally, in essence, devalue their currency to gain a trade advantage at the expense of other countries. A weaker currency makes exports inexpensive (or at least cheaper) to foreigners, which can lead to higher exports and job creation in the export sector.
Source: Nelson, R. M., “Current Debates over Exchange Rates: Overview and Issues for Congress,” Congressional Research Service, November 12, 2013.

10. The Functions of the Foreign Exchange Market 3 of 6
Insuring Against Foreign Exchange Risk
The foreign exchange market can provide insurance against foreign exchange risk: the possibility that unpredicted changes in future exchange rates will have adverse consequences for the firm
A firm that protects itself against foreign exchange risk is hedging
The market performs this function using
Spot exchange rates
Forward exchange rates
Currency swaps
LO 10-2 Understand what is meant by spot exchange rates.

11. The Functions of the Foreign Exchange Market 4 of 6
Insuring Against Foreign Exchange Risk continued
Spot Exchange Rates
Rate at which a foreign exchange dealer converts one currency into another currency on a particular day
Determined by the interaction between supply and demand
Changes continually

12. The Functions of the Foreign Exchange Market 5 of 6
Insuring Against Foreign Exchange Risk continued
Forward Exchange Rates
The exchange rate governing a forward exchange
A forward exchange occurs when two parties agree to exchange currency and execute the deal at some specific date in the future
Forward exchange rates are typically quoted for 30, 90, or 180 days into the future
Can sometimes work against a company
LO Recognize the role that forward exchange rates play in insuring against foreign exchange risk.

13. The Functions of the Foreign Exchange Market 6 of 6
Insuring Against Foreign Exchange Risk continued
Currency Swaps
Simultaneous purchase and sale of a given amount of foreign exchange for two different value dates
Swaps are used when it is desirable to move out of one currency into another for a limited period without incurring foreign exchange rate risk

14. Should Currency Speculation be Allowed?
Currency speculation involves the short-term movement of funds from one currency to another in the hopes of profiting from shifts in exchange rates. Sometimes this speculation is done as what is called a carry trade. In effect, it can be argued that currency speculation tactics may have a strong negative effect on some countries’ economic foundation (e.g., Iceland, Thailand). For years, Iceland was a respected country for its unmatchable standards of living. The 2008 economic turmoil threw the island nation’s currency off the cliff. The hedge funds closed in, and the government had to try to fight off the predators. Several years later, Iceland is still feeling the effect of these currency woes, albeit the country is now in recovery mode and progressing in a positive direction. But the issue remains that large-scale currency speculation has the potential to adversely affect global markets. So, should currency speculation be allowed?
Source: A. Jung and C. Pauly, “Currency Woes: Crashing the Party of Icelandic Prosperity,” Spiegel Online International, April 10,

15. The Nature of the Foreign Exchange Market
The foreign exchange market is a global network of banks, brokers, and foreign exchange dealers connected by electronic communications systems
The market is always open somewhere in the world
If exchange rates quoted in different markets were not essentially the same, there would be an opportunity for arbitrage: the process of buying a currency low and selling it high
Most transactions involve U.S. dollars on one side
The U.S. dollar is a vehicle currency

16. Economic Theories of Exchange Rate Determination 1 of 9
Three factors have an important impact on future exchange rate movements
A country’s price inflation
A country’s interest rate
Market psychology
LO Understand the different theories explaining how currency exchange rates are determined and their relative merits.

17. Economic Theories of Exchange Rate Determination 2 of 9
Prices and Exchange Rates
The law of one price
In competitive markets free of transportation costs and barriers to trade, identical products sold in different countries must sell for the same price when price is expressed in terms of the same currency
Purchasing power parity (PPP)
Given relatively efficient markets (markets in which few impediments to international trade and investment exist) the price of a “basket of goods” should be roughly equivalent in each country

18. Economic Theories of Exchange Rate Determination 3 of 9
Prices and Exchange Rates continued
Purchasing Power Parity continued
PPP predicts that changes in relative prices will result in changes in exchange rates
When inflation is relatively high, a currency should depreciate
Country Focus: Quantitative Easing, Inflation, and the Value of the U.S. Dollar
 Summary
 This feature describes the process of quantitative easing and its implications for the economy. The injection of money into the market by the Federal Reserve in the fall of 2010 was designed to help stimulate the struggling U.S. economy. The move was criticized though by those who felt the move would actually generate inflation and a falling dollar. Time proved the critics wrong as the value of the currency remained virtually unchanged for several months. Discussion of the feature can begin with the following questions.
 Suggested Discussion Questions
 1. What does the 2010 purchase by the Federal Reserve of $600 billion in U.S. government bonds tell you about U.S. fiscal policy? What was the Federal Reserve trying to accomplish?
 Discussion Points: The decision by the Federal Reserve to purchase $600 billion in U.S. government bonds suggests that the United States was trying to expand the money supply. A larger money supply implies lower interest rates. Lower interest rates decrease the cost of borrowing and should therefore increase investment in the economy. Most students will recognize that the goal of the Federal Reserve was to stimulate the U.S. economy
 2. Why did the Federal Reserve receive so much criticism for its policy of quantitative easing? Do you agree with the critics? Was the policy simply mercantilism in disguise?
 Discussion Points: Critics claim that the decision by the Federal Reserve to increase the money supply via quantitative easing was actually a form of protectionism, and in particular, simply a mercantilist policy. According to critics, the Federal Reserve’s policy would prompt a decline in the value of the U.S. dollar making it easier for U.S. companies to export, and harder for foreign companies to export their products to the United States. Most students will probably agree that the fears of the critics proved to be unfounded as the value of the dollar against a basket of major currencies remained virtually unchanged.
 Lecture Note: To extend this discussion, consider {

19. Economic Theories of Exchange Rate Determination 4 of 9
Prices and Exchange Rates continued
Money Supply and Price Inflation
If we can predict inflation rates, we can predict how a currency’s value might change
The growth of a country’s money supply determines its likely future inflation rate
When the growth in the money supply is greater than the growth in output, inflation will occur
Country Focus: Quantitative Easing, Inflation, and the Value of the U.S. Dollar
 Summary
 This feature describes the process of quantitative easing and its implications for the economy. The injection of money into the market by the Federal Reserve in the fall of 2010 was designed to help stimulate the struggling U.S. economy. The move was criticized though by those who felt the move would actually generate inflation and a falling dollar. Time proved the critics wrong as the value of the currency remained virtually unchanged for several months. Discussion of the feature can begin with the following questions.
 Suggested Discussion Questions
 1. What does the 2010 purchase by the Federal Reserve of $600 billion in U.S. government bonds tell you about U.S. fiscal policy? What was the Federal Reserve trying to accomplish?
 Discussion Points: The decision by the Federal Reserve to purchase $600 billion in U.S. government bonds suggests that the United States was trying to expand the money supply. A larger money supply implies lower interest rates. Lower interest rates decrease the cost of borrowing and should therefore increase investment in the economy. Most students will recognize that the goal of the Federal Reserve was to stimulate the U.S. economy
 2. Why did the Federal Reserve receive so much criticism for its policy of quantitative easing? Do you agree with the critics? Was the policy simply mercantilism in disguise?
 Discussion Points: Critics claim that the decision by the Federal Reserve to increase the money supply via quantitative easing was actually a form of protectionism, and in particular, simply a mercantilist policy. According to critics, the Federal Reserve’s policy would prompt a decline in the value of the U.S. dollar making it easier for U.S. companies to export, and harder for foreign companies to export their products to the United States. Most students will probably agree that the fears of the critics proved to be unfounded as the value of the dollar against a basket of major currencies remained virtually unchanged.
 Lecture Note: To extend this discussion, consider {

20. Effects of Inflation
Women shop at an outdoor market in La Paz, Bolivia. Bolivia’s inflation rate is much lower today than it was in but must be carefully monitored.
Source: © Noah Friedman-Rudovsky/Bloomberg/Getty Images

21. Economic Theories of Exchange Rate Determination 5 of 9
Prices and Exchange Rates continued
Empirical Tests of PPP Theory
Indicates that it is not completely accurate in estimating exchange rate changes in the short run, but is relatively accurate in the long run
The purchasing power parity puzzle
Assumes away transportation costs and barriers to trade
PPP theory may not hold if many national markets are dominated by a handful of multinational enterprises that have sufficient market power to be able to exercise some influence over prices, control distribution channels, and differentiate their product offerings between nations.

22. What about the Starbucks Index, a Good Idea?
To test the Big Mac index, which applies the purchasing power parity (PPP) theory using the price of a Big Mac in various markets to determine the equilibrium value of the foreign currency, The Economist established a Starbucks index in Like the Big Mac, a cup of Starbucks coffee can be found in many foreign markets and can be seen as a proxy for a basket of goods. The results of the Starbucks index followed the Big Mac index in most markets, except in Asia, where the former indicated that the dollar was at parity with the Chinese yuan. The Big Mac index suggested that the yuan was heavily undervalued. Neither of these consumer items is a good proxy for a basket of goods, but comparing their relative prices with exchange rates is an interesting and playful approach to quickly grasping how under- or overvalued the foreign currency is against the dollar. This obviously does not take into account whether you think a McDonald’s Big Mac or a Starbucks cup of coffee is overpriced or relatively cheap where you live! What would be a good product, sold worldwide, that can replace the Big Mac and Starbucks indices?

23. Economic Theories of Exchange Rate Determination 6 of 9
Interest Rates and Exchange Rates
The Fisher Effect states that a country’s nominal interest rate (i) is the sum of the required real rate of interest (r ) and the expected rate of inflation over the period for which the funds are to be lent (I)
In other words, i = r + I
So, if the real interest rate is the same everywhere, any difference in interest rates between countries reflects differing expectations about inflation rates

24. Economic Theories of Exchange Rate Determination 7 of 9
Interest Rates and Exchange Rates continued
International Fisher Effect suggests that for any two countries, the spot exchange rate should change in an equal amount but in the opposite direction to the difference in nominal interest rates between the two countries
In other words:
(S1 - S2) / S2 x 100 = i $ - i ¥
where i $ and i ¥ are the respective nominal interest rates in two countries (in this case the U.S. and Japan), S1 is the spot exchange rate at the beginning of the period and S2 is the spot exchange rate at the end of the period

25. Economic Theories of Exchange Rate Determination 8 of 9
Investor Psychology and the Bandwagon Effects
Bandwagon effect occurs when expectations on the part of traders turn into self-fulfilling prophecies, and traders join the bandwagon and move exchange rates based on group expectations
Governmental intervention can prevent the bandwagon from starting, but is not always effective

26. Economic Theories of Exchange Rate Determination 9 of 9
Summary of Exchange Rate Theories
Relative monetary growth, relative inflation rates, and nominal interest rate differentials are all moderately good predictors of long-run changes in exchange rates, but poor predictors of short term changes
So, international businesses should pay attention to countries’ differing monetary growth, inflation, and interest rates

27. Exchange Rate Forecasting 1 of 3
The Efficient Market School
Efficient market is one in which prices reflect all available information
Forward exchange rates are the best predictors of future spot exchange rates
Investing in forecasting services is a waste of money
LO Identify the merits of different approaches toward exchange rate forecasting.

28. Exchange Rate Forecasting 2 of 3
The Inefficient Market School
Inefficient market is one in which prices do not reflect all available information
Forward exchange rates are not the best predictors of future spot exchange rates
Companies should invest in forecasting services
LO Identify the merits of different approaches toward exchange rate forecasting.

29. Did You Know?
Did you know that the U.S. dollar has been one of the strongest currencies in the world since the great recession of 2008– 2009? Click to play video

30. Exchange Rate Forecasting 3 of 3
Approaches to Forecasting
Fundamental analysis
Draws upon economic factors like interest rates, monetary policy, inflation rates, or balance of payments information to predict exchange rates
Technical analysis
Uses price and volume data to determine past trends that are expected to continue
Many economists skeptical of technical analysis

31. Currency Convertibility 1 of 2
Various types of currencies
Freely convertible: both residents and non-residents can purchase unlimited amounts of foreign currency with the domestic currency
Externally convertible: only non-residents can convert their holdings of domestic currency into a foreign currency
Nonconvertible: both residents and non-residents are prohibited from converting their holdings of domestic currency into a foreign currency

32. Currency Convertibility 2 of 2
The main reason is to preserve foreign exchange reserves and prevent capital flight: when residents and nonresidents rush to convert their holdings of domestic currency into a foreign currency
In the case of a nonconvertible currency, firms may turn to countertrade (barter like agreements by which goods and services can be traded for other goods and services) to facilitate international trade
How important is countertrade? Twenty years ago, a large number of nonconvertible currencies existed in the world, and countertrade was quite significant. However, in recent years, many governments have made their currencies freely convertible, and the percentage of world trade that involves countertrade is probably significantly below 5 percent.

33. Focus on Managerial Implications 1 of 4
Foreign Exchange Rate Risk
Firms must understand the influence of exchange rates on the profitability of trade and investment deals
Transaction exposure
The extent to which the income from individual transactions is affected by fluctuations in foreign exchange values
Translation exposure
The impact of currency exchange rate changes on the reported financial statements of a company
Economic exposure
The extent to which a firm’s future international earning power is affected by changes in exchange rates
LO Compare and contrast the differences among translation, transaction, and economic exposure, and what managers can do to manage each type of exposure.
Translation exposure: Deals with the present measurement of past events
Gains and losses from translation exposure are reflected only on paper

34. Focus on Managerial Implications 2 of 4
Reducing Translation and Transaction Exposure
Buy forward
Use swaps
Lead Strategy
Collect foreign currency receivables early when a foreign currency is expected to depreciate
Paying foreign currency payables before they are due when a currency is expected to appreciate
Lag Strategy
Delay collection of foreign currency receivables if that currency is expected to appreciate
Delay payables if the currency is expected to depreciate
Lead and lag strategies can be difficult to implement, however. The firm must be in a position to exercise some control over payment terms. Firms do not always have this kind of bargaining power, particularly when they are dealing with important customers who are in a position to dictate payment terms

35. Focus on Managerial Implications 3 of 4
Reducing Economic Exposure
Firms need to distribute productive assets to various locations to avoid long-term financial problems associated with changes in exchange rates

36. Focus on Managerial Implications 4 of 4
Other Steps for Managing Risk
Establish central control to protect resources efficiently and ensure that each subunit adopts the correct mix of tactics and strategies
Distinguish between transaction and translation exposure on the one hand, and economic exposure on the other hand
Attempt to forecast future exchange rates
Establish good reporting systems so the central finance function can regularly monitor the firm’s exposure position
Produce monthly foreign exchange exposure reports

37. Summary In this chapter we have
Described the functions of the foreign exchange market.
Understood what is meant by spot exchange rates.
Recognized the role that forward exchange rates play in insuring against foreign exchange risk.
Understood the different theories explaining how currency exchange rates are determined and their relative merits.
Identified the merits of different approaches toward exchange rate forecasting.
Compared and contrasted the differences among translation, transaction, and economic exposure, and what managers can do to manage each type of exposure.