1. Behavioral Adaptations to the Environment
Chapter 35
Behavioral Adaptations to the Environment

2. Leaping Herds of Herbivores
Leaping Herds of Herbivores
Impalas of the African savanna
Are very successful as a population, despite heavy pressure from predators

3. Impalas exhibit protective behaviors such as grouping
To protect from the numerous carnivores

4. THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF BEHAVIOR
35.1 Behavioral ecologists ask both proximate and ultimate questions
Behavior
Is everything an animal does and how it does it
Figure 35.1

5. Behavioral ecology
Studies behavior in an evolutionary context
Behavioral ecologists
Consider proximate questions, which focus on the immediate causes of behavior
Consider ultimate questions, which focus on the evolutionary causes of behavior

6. Natural selection
Preserves behaviors that enhance fitness

7. 35.2 Early behaviorists used experiments to study fixed action patterns
Lorenz and Tinbergen were the first to demonstrate the importance of innate behavior
Which is performed the same way by all members of a species

8. Fixed action patterns (FAPs)
Fixed action patterns (FAPs)
Are innate behaviors that exhibit unchangeable sequences
Ensure that activities essential to survival are performed correctly without practice
Figure 35.2

9. Sign stimuli
Are simple cues that trigger fixed action patterns

10. 35.3 Behavior is the result of both genes and environmental factors
35.3 Behavior is the result of both genes and environmental factors
Certain behaviors in prairie voles
Are under relatively strong genetic control
Figure 35.3A

11. Studies have shown differences in oxytocin (a hormone) receptors
Studies have shown differences in oxytocin (a hormone) receptors
In the brains of female monogamous prairie voles and promiscuous montane voles
Figure 35.3B

12. LEARNING
35.4 Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving
Learning
Is a change in behavior resulting from experience
Table 35.4

13. Habituation
Is learning to ignore a repeated, unimportant stimulus

14. 35.5 Imprinting is learning that involves innate behavior and experience
Imprinting
Is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period
Figure 35.5A

15. Imprinting plays a role in song development
For many kinds of birds
Imprinting plays a role in song development
Figure 35.5B

16. CONNECTION
35.6 Imprinting poses problems and opportunities for conservation programs
Captive breeding programs for endangered species
Must provide proper imprinting models
Figure 35.6

17. 35.7 Animal movement may be a simple response to stimuli or involve spatial learning
A kinesis
Is a random movement in response to a stimulus

18. A taxis
Is a more or less automatic movement directed toward or away from a stimulus
Direction
of river
current
Figure 35.7A

19. Involves using landmarks to move through the environment
Spatial learning
Involves using landmarks to move through the environment
Is more complex than kineses or taxes 1 2 3
Nest
No nest
Figure 35.7B

20. 35.8 Movements of animals may depend on internal maps
35.8 Movements of animals may depend on internal maps
Cognitive maps
Are internal representations of spatial relationships of objects in the surroundings

21. Migratory animals may move between areas
Migratory animals may move between areas
Using the sun, stars, landmarks, or other cues
Paper
Ink pad
Funnel-
shaped
cage
Figure 35.8

22. 35.9 Animals may learn to associate a stimulus or behavior with a response
In associative learning
An animal learns that a particular stimulus or a particular response is linked to a reward or punishment

23. In trial-and-error learning
In trial-and-error learning
An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect
Figure 35.9

24. 35.10 Social learning involves observation and imitation of others
35.10 Social learning involves observation and imitation of others
Social learning involves changes in behavior
That result from the observation and imitation of others
Figure 35.10

25. 35.11 Problem-solving behavior relies on cognition
35.11 Problem-solving behavior relies on cognition
Cognition is the ability of an animal’s nervous system
To perceive, store, process, and use information

26. Some animals exhibit problem-solving behavior
Some animals exhibit problem-solving behavior
Which involves complex cognitive processes
Figure 35.11A, B

27. FORAGING AND MATING BEHAVIORS
35.12 Behavioral ecologists use cost-benefit analysis in studying foraging
Foraging includes
Identifying, obtaining, and eating food

28. Some animals are generalists
Some animals are generalists
Eating just about anything that is readily available
Figure 35.12A

29. Other animals are specialists Eating only specific available foods
Other animals are specialists
Eating only specific available foods
Figure 35.12B

30. Optimal foraging theory predicts that an animal’s feeding behavior
Optimal foraging theory predicts that an animal’s feeding behavior
Will maximize energy gain and minimize energy expenditure and risk
Figure 35.12C

31. 35.13 Mating behaviors enhance reproductive success
35.13 Mating behaviors enhance reproductive success
Mating systems may be
Promiscuous, monogamous, or polygamous

32. The needs of offspring and certainty of paternity
The needs of offspring and certainty of paternity
Help explain differences in mating systems and parental care by males
Figure 35.13

33. 35.14 Mating behavior often involves elaborate courtship rituals
35.14 Mating behavior often involves elaborate courtship rituals
Courtship rituals
Advertise the species, sex, and physical condition of males 1 2 3 4
Figure 35.14A

34. In some species, courtship is a group activity
In some species, courtship is a group activity
In which members of one or both sexes choose mates from a group of candidates
Figure 35.14B

35. SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
35.15 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
Sociobiology studies social behavior
The interactions of two or more animals, in an evolutionary sense

36. 35.16 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
35.16 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources
Animals exhibiting this behavior
Mark and defend their territories
Figure 35.16A, B

37. 35.17 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors
Agonistic behavior, including threat, rituals, and sometimes combat
Settles disputes over resources
Figure 35.17

38. 35.18 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
35.18 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
Dominance hierarchies
Partition resources among members of a social group
Figure 35.18

39. TALKING ABOUT SCIENCE
35.19 Behavioral biologist Jane Goodall discusses dominance hierarchies and reconciliation behavior in chimpanzees
Figure 35.19A

40. Exhibit dominance hierarchies and reconciliation behavior
Chimpanzees
Exhibit dominance hierarchies and reconciliation behavior
Figure 35.19B

41. 35.20 Social behavior requires communication between animals
35.20 Social behavior requires communication between animals
Signaling in the form of sounds, scents, displays, or touches
Provides communication needed for social behavior
Figure 35.20A, B

42. 35.21 Altruistic acts can often be explained by the concept of inclusive fitness
Altruism is defined as behavior that reduces an individual’s fitness
While increasing the fitness of others in the population
Figure 35.21A

43. An animal can propagate its own genes by helping relatives reproduce
Altruism can usually be explained by inclusive fitness and kin selection
An animal can propagate its own genes by helping relatives reproduce
Figure 35.21B

44. In reciprocal altruism
Individuals do favors that may later be repaid

45. 35.22 Both genes and culture contribute to human social behavior
CONNECTION
35.22 Both genes and culture contribute to human social behavior
Human behavior
Has a genetic basis but is quite variable
Is strongly influenced by learning and culture

46. Research has suggested that human partners with similar interests
Research has suggested that human partners with similar interests
Are more likely to have long, stable relationships
Figure 35.22

47. TALKING ABOUT SCIENCE
35.23 Edward O. Wilson promoted the field of sociobiology and is a leading conservation activist
According to sociobiologist Edward O. Wilson
Natural selection underlies many human behaviors, including behaviors that have led to our current biodiversity crisis
Figure 35.23