1. Early Societies and Networks of the Eastern Mediterranean
Chapter 4

2. Second millennium B.C.E.
Egyptians, Mesopotamians empires grew in strength
Competed with one another
Smaller societies developed influential ideas
Established cities, states

3. Hebrews – created the base for three major
religions
Minoans – became a flourishing society and an economic bridge between western Asia and S.E. Europe
Mycenaean – built the first cities in Greece

4. Phoenicians – created an important new alphabet, established colonies in western Mediterranean, migration & trade fostered networks connecting many ancient societies
Greece – Greek migrants began building an important society

5. Regional Climate Cool rainy winters Hot, dry summers
Many hills encouraged the planting of olive trees and grape vines
Olive oil and wine became export crops
People raised pigs, sheep and goats
Sea – fostered boat building, maritime trade

6. “Cosmopolitan” era The Late Bronze Age in the Middle East -
B.C.E.
Diplomatic relations
Commercial contacts
Flow of goods & ideas
Elites enjoyed high standard of living

7. Egypt – New Kingdom 17th century B.C.E., the Middle Kingdom declined
1640 B.C.E. Hyksos conquered Egypt
The Hyksos possessed military technologies – horse-drawn war chariots, & bow made of wood & horn
The Hyksos assimilated with the Egyptians

8. Hyksos were expelled from Egypt
Egypt inaugurated the New Kingdom
1532 – 1070 B.C.E.
Became aggressive and expansionist state
Expanded its territory to Syria-Israel in the north, and to Nubia in the south
Won access to timber, gold and copper, taxes and tribute, and a buffer zone

9. Egypt participated in the diplomatic and commercial networks
Egyptians soldiers, administrators, diplomats, and merchants exposed Egypt to exotic fruits & vegetables & new technologies

10. King Akhenaten Amenhotep IV– 1353 – 1335 B.C.E.
Referred to himself as Akhenaten – sought to spread his belief in Aten as the supreme deity
Departed from traditional ways
Challenged the supremacy of the chief god Amon
Questioned the power and influence of the priests of Amon
Closed the temples of other gods

11. Attempted to reassert the superiority of the king over the priests
Renew belief in the King’s divinity
Only the royal family could worship Aten
The Egyptian people were pushed to revere the divine ruler

12. Built a new capital city
Commissioned art work depicting the royal family in unconventional way
Neglected Egyptian policy of conquests and expansions
His reforms were resented by government officials, priests, and some elite

13. After Akenaten death:
The temples were reopened
Amon was reinstated as chief god
The capital returned to Thebes
The institution of kingship was weakened
Play to the advantage of the priests

14. The Ramessides Dynasty 1323 B.C.E.
General Haremhab seized the throne & established a new dynasty – the Ramessides
Renew Egyptian policy of conquest and expansion
Ramsses II – Ramsses the Great ruled for 60 years
Built all over Egypt monumental buildings

15. Commerce and communication
Ramsses II fought the Hittites at Kadesh
No territorial expansion
Egyptian & Hittites diplomats negotiated a treaty (strengthened by Ramsses’ marriage to a Hittites princess)
At issue: control of Syria-Israel

16. New modes of transportation were introduced
Horses were brought into Western Asia around 2000 B.C.E.
Influenced the speed of travel and communication
Horses contributed to the creation of large states & empires

17. Soldiers & officials could cover great distances quickly
Horse-drawn chariots became the primary instrument of war
The team of a driver and an archer fired arrows with speed & force

18. By 1500 B.C.E. people in Western Asia began using the Camel
Camels traveled across barren terrain
Emergence of
New kind of desert nomad
Creation of cross-desert trade routes

19. The Assyrian Empire 911-612 B.C.E.
Neo-Assyrian Empire emerged in Western Asia in the tenth century B.C.E.
The first to rule far away lands and diverse people
Created the largest empire in the world

20. The Assyrian homeland was in a hilly area of northern Mesopotamia
Mild climate and greater rainfall
Exposed to raiders from mountains (E & N)
Farmers defended themselves from raiders
The peasants-farmers constituted the foot soldiers of the Neo-Assyrian army

21. The king followed the most important trade routes
Controlled the international trade
Provided booty, prospect of tribute and taxes
Secured access to vital resources – iron, silver

22. The king was the center of the Assyrian universe
The gods chose the king as their ruler
All the land belonged to him, and all his subjects were his servants
Spies brought the king information from every corner of the empire

23. The king was the chief diplomat
- He made all the decisions
– appointed officials
Heard complaints
Received envoys and high ranking government officials
The commander and chief

24. Supervised the state religion
Ashur was the chief god
He initiated public and private rituals
Supervised the upkeep of the temples
Consulted the gods through rituals
- All state actions were carried out in the name of Ashur

25. Government propaganda secured people’s support for military campaigns
Royal inscriptions were posted throughout the empire boasting military victories
Inscription emphasized the king charisma
Severe punishments to anyone who resisted the king

26. Conquests and Control Superior military organization and technology
Men served in return for grants of land
Peasants and slaves were donated to the army by their landowners
By Tiglathpileser created a professional army

27. Troops were divided to:
Armed bowmen and slingers
2. Armored spearmen
3. Cavalry equipped with bows/spears
4. Four-man chariots
5. Messengers & signal fires provided long-distant communication
6. Network of spies gathered intelligence

28. The Assyrians used terror tactics – to discourage rebellion
Swift and harsh retribution
Mass deportation and resettlement elsewhere
The exiled worked on royal/noble estates
Opened new land for agriculture
Built new palaces and cities

29. Difficulties Vast distance Varied landscapes Diverse people
Control of the cities was tight
Control of rural areas - difficult

30. The Assyrians exploited the wealth & resources of their subjects
Wars and administration were funded by plunder & tribute
Wealth from the periphery was sent to the city
The king and nobility grew rich

31. The state invested in the infrastructure
Expansion of the capital & religious centers at Ashur
New royal cities - encircled by high walls containing ornate palaces and temples

32. Assyrian Society Three classes – Free landowning citizens - elite
Farmers and artisans attached to the estate of the king/rich landowner, merchants
Slaves – debtors, prisoners of war

33. The elite –
They were bound to the king by oaths of obedience, expectation of rewards, fear of punishment

34. The merchant classes
Thrived on expanded long-distance commerce
Imported luxury goods – fine textiles, dyes, gems, ivory
Silver – was the basic medium of exchange

35. No preferable treatment:
Assyrian citizens, deportees, or immigrants were referred to as “human beings”
All entitled to the same legal protection
All liable for the same labor and military service

36. Some Assyrian temples had libraries
The library of Ashurbanipal contained official documents, literary, & scientific texts
Some documents are originals, some copies
“House of Knowledge” – an academy that attracted learned men to the royal court

37. The Aegean World 2000 – 1100 B.C.E.
The influence of Mesopotamia and Egypt was felt as far as the Aegean Sea
Emergence of the Minoan civilization
Emergence of the Mycenaean civilization

38. The landscape of southern Greece and the Aegean islands is mostly rocky and arid
There is limited arable land suitable for grain, grapevines, and olive trees
Small plains lying between ranges of hills – suitable for herds of sheep and goats
Natural harbors and small islands in close proximity to each other

39. Very little natural resources
The Aegean peoples had to import metal, timber, and food supplies
* The rise and the decline of these two civilizations, were related to their commercial and political relations with other peoples in the region

40. The Minoan civilization
Minoan –native of the island of Crete
Strategic location
Center for sea trade – Egypt, western Asia, Southeastern Europe
Traded extensively with Sicily, Greece, the Aegean Islands

41. By 3000 B.C.E. used copper
Pioneered a mix agriculture – grape vine, olive trees, grain

42. The Minoan had:
Centralized government
Writing system – not deciphered
Record keeping
4. Monumental buildings
5. Bronze metallurgy

43. The Minoans were influenced by Egyptian, Syrian, and Mesopotamian architecture:
Extensive palace complexes, government building
The palace complexes had high-quality indoor plumbing
Absence of fortifications at the palace site

44. The Minoans had a different concept of authority -
They did not have a king
~1630 B.C.E. cities on the island were destroyed

45. Art
Colorful frescos on walls of palaces portrays women engaged in conversation or watching rituals or entertainment
Statuettes of women with elaborate headdresses and serpents spiraling around their limbs suggest fertility goddesses

46. Minoan vases depicting plants with swaying leaves may reflect a delight in beauty and order of the natural world

47. Mycenaean Greece Became an important power between 1600-1200 B.C.E.
Mycenae was built on a hilltop, surrounded by high fortification walls
Contained the palace and administrative center

48. State controlled economy - Recorded people, animals, products and objects
The government organized grain production & controlled the wool industry and the distribution to the people

49. Warrior society – conquered Crete, all of southern Greece and the Aegean island
Formed an empire
Collected taxes and tribute

50. Continued Minoan trade networks
Dispatched ships to Sicily, Italy, Spain and the Black Sea
They traded wine and olive oil
They exported weapons, slaves, and mercenary soldiers
May have transported goods of other people
Minoan & Mycenaean imported amber, ivory, grains, gold, copper and tin

51. Spread bronze technology
Cultural uniformity of all Mycenae centers
Similar in shapes, decorative styles, techniques of buildings, tombs, utensils, tool, clothing and work of art

52. By 1200 B.C.E. – collapse
“Sea Peoples” – pillaged, disrupted trade

53. The Fall of Late Bronze Civilizations
Around 1200 B.C.E. large numbers of people were on the move throughout the Middle East
The demise of the Hittites kingdom in Anatolia
The tide of destruction moved south into Syria, destroying Ugarit

54. By 1250 B.C.E. the Philistines -“Sea People”- (hence the name Palestine) invaded Israel who was under Egyptian’s control
Egypt lost all its territories in Syria-Israel
Egypt lost contact with the rest of western Asia, and Nubia
According to Egyptian inscription, the invaders were Greeks

55. The end of the Mycenaean civilization illustrates the interdependence of the major centers of the Late Bronze Age
Collapse in the political, economic and social realms

56. The Greek language persisted, so was the religion
One thousand years later people continued to worship gods mentioned in the Linear B tablets
People continued to make vessels

57. Israel B.C.E.
The Hebrews, a Semitic people, were one of many groups of pastoral nomads
Engaged in herding and caravan traffic, became sedentary, agricultural people
The Hebrews were led by powerful men known as patriarchs

58. Their monarchy lasted less than a century
The Hebrew contribution to religious history, especially to Christian and Islamic traditions, exceeded that of either Mesopotamians or Egypt

59. The history of Israel is marked by two grand & interconnected events
1. Developed complex political & social institutions
2. Integrated into the commercial & diplomatic networks of the Middle East

60. Transformed the strict cult of a desert god
into the concept of a single, all powerful, and
all-knowing deity
Created ethical & intellectual traditions that underlie the beliefs and values of Judaism, Christianity, and, to a lesser extent, Islam

61. Israel is a crossroad, linking Anatolia, Egypt, Arabia and Mesopotamia
Its geographical location has given Israel an importance in history out of all proportion to its size

62. Origins, Exodus, & Settlement
Information on the Israelites comes from :
1. Archeological excavations
2. Annals of Egypt & Assyrian
The Hebrew Bible -

63. Tenth century B.C.E. traditions were written down in a script
The text we have today is from the fifth century B.C.E.
The spoken language was Hebrew
It is a Semitic language (related to Phoenician & Aramaic)

64. The Hebrews trace their ancestry as a people back to Abraham -2000 B.C.E.
His two sons, Isaac and Ishmael, are considered the spiritual ancestors of three monotheistic religions – Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

65. Abraham was born into a polytheistic world – but he recognized one supreme god
“Covenant” – pact with the Israelite’s god “Yahweh”

66. Joseph was able to help his people when drought struck Israel and forced the Israelite to migrate to Egypt
The Egyptians feared the Israelites, and reduced them to slaves, building projects for Pharaoh
In the thirteenth century the “exodus” from Egypt, led by Moses, took place

67. . The Egyptians are complaining about Apiru
Scholars believe there is a connection
between the similar sounding terms Apiru
and Hebrew
3. The period of the Israelite slavery in Egypt
coincided with the era of ambitious building
programs launched by the New Kingdom
pharaohs

68. Probably oral tradition may have preserved memories of a real migration from Egypt
Israelites wandered in the Sinai desert 40 years
Covenant with Yahweh: they would be his “Chosen People”- if they will worship him
exclusively

69. Moses is believed to be the founder of the Jewish religion
Moses gave his name to a code of laws, including the Ten Commandments, by which the Hebrews governed themselves

70. These are the basic tenets of Jewish belief & practice:
The commandments prohibited:
murder
adultery
theft
lying
envy

71. It demanded: 1. Respect for parents
2. Rest from work on the
seventh day - Sabbath

72. The Bible tells how Joshua led the Israelites into the land of Canaan
The “Children of Israel” were divided to 12 tribes
Each tribe installed itself in a different part of the country- was led by a chief/chiefs

73. These rulers had limited power –
Mediated disputes
Saw to the welfare & protection of the people

74. Sagacious people were appointed “Judges”
Built a shrine on a hill near Shiloh
The shrine housed the Ark of the Covenant –
A scared chest containing the tablets that Yahweh had given Moses

75. Rise of the Monarchy
1200 B.C.E. – time of trouble in the Mediterranean
Philistines came to the area, settled along the coastal plain of Israel – frequent conflicts
Samuel recognized the need for a stronger central authority to lead the Israelites against the Philistine city-states

76. Saul was anointed as the first king of Israel-1020 B.C.E.

77. King David
B.C.E. David was chosen as the second king of Israel
He oversaw Israel’s transition from a tribal confederacy to a unified monarchy
1. Built a capital city – Jerusalem outside the
tribal boundaries
2. Brought the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem
3. Made the city a religious & political center of the kingdom

78. 1. Built a capital city – Jerusalem outside the
tribal boundaries
2. Brought the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem
3. Made the city a religious & political center of the kingdom

79. 4. Conducted a census to facilitate the
collection of taxes
5. Created a standing army
6. Won a string of military victories
7. Expanded Israel’s borders
8. Equality – no one is above the law

80. King Solomon B.C.E.
Marked the high point of the Israelite monarchy
Alliances and trade linked Israel with near and distant lands
Wealth was accumulated through military and commercial ventures
Lavish court life
Sizable bureaucracy

81. Chariot army made Israel a regional power
Ambitious building program employing slaves and citizens
Solomon built the First Temple in Jerusalem
Israel had a central shrine
An impressive set of rituals
The Temple priests became powerful and wealthy class
He built the FIRST TEMPLE in Jerusalem to strengthen the link between religious and secular authority

82. The expansion of Jerusalem
New commercial opportunities
Increasing prestige of the Temple hierarchy
Changed the social composition of Israelite society
-A gap between urban and rural, rich and poor polarized a people that were homogeneous

83. Israel split into two kingdoms:
The northern kingdom – Israel
The southern kingdom – Judah
- In 722 B.C.E. the Assyrians conquered Israel and resettled its inhabitants elsewhere in the empire

84. New settlers were brought to Israel from Syria, Babylon, and Iran
The newcomers changed the area’s ethnic, cultural, and religious character
The kingdom of Judah survived a century longer

85. In 586 king Nebuchadnezzar – Babylon-conquered the kingdom of Judah and exiled its king, the aristocracy and skilled workers to the Euphrates area

86. The bitterness of the “Babylonian captivity”
Was reflected in a Hebrew Psalm:
“By the rivers of Babylon
there we sat down, yea
we wept when we remembered Zion”
Psalm: 137

87. Most of the deportees prospered in the Babylonian captivity
By mid century Cyrus the Great, conquered Babylon
The exile ended in 539, when the Persian allowed the Jews to return to Israel
- Most of the deportees elected to remain in Babylon – “Diaspora”

88. Jews who went back to Israel in the later 6th century B. C. E
Jews who went back to Israel in the later 6th century B.C.E., rebuilt a Second Temple on Temple Mount in Jerusalem
The Deuteronomic Code was drafted – law & conduct
5th century B.C.E. the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) was compiled

89. 63 C.E. Israel was conquered by the Roman Empire
In 70 C.E.
1. the Second Temple was destroyed
2. revolt against Roman’s rule and authority
3. the Jews were dispersed again

90. From that time until the establishment of modern Israel in 1948 C. E
From that time until the establishment of modern Israel in 1948 C.E. there was no independent Jewish state in Israel

91. Israelite family Lived in extended family
Marriage was arranged by the parent
Male heirs were of paramount importance
First born male received a double share of inheritance

92. Any couple could adopt a child
If a man died childless, his brother was expected to marry his widow and sire an heir

93. Women
Women provided a vital portion of the goods and services that sustained the family
Women were respected, enjoyed equality with their husbands
Could not inherit
Could not initiate a divorce
If caught in extramarital relations – put to death

94. Working-class women labored in agriculture, herding, caring for the house, and children
In urban centers – women worked outside their home as cooks, bakers, perfumers, wet nurses, singers
Few women reached position of influence

95. “wise women”- composed sacred texts in poetry and prose
Because of male bias in the Hebrew Bible
the women status declined as Israelite society became more urbanized

96. Hebrew Religion & World History
The religious history of the Hebrews, their ethical code, makes them memorable in world history
The Hebrew developed four religious concepts:
Monotheism
Morality
Messianism
Meaning in history
Over long history, both as nomads and settled state builders, the Hebrew developed 4 religious concepts that made them stand out among ancient peoples and later influenced the Western and Islamic traditions

97. Monotheism Monotheism developed in two stages:
While polytheism remained influential for some centuries among other people
The Hebrews worshiped a single god Yahweh
Yahweh made a “covenant” with their earlier patriarch
This covenant was reinforced with the Ten Commandments

98. Obey Yahweh, and he will protect them
This form of monotheism did not deny the existence of other gods, but the Hebrews had only one
Over time, asserted there is only ONE GOD Yahweh for all people

99. Morality
It is not enough to obey the Bible’s social and ritual commandments
Following Yahweh meant leading moral life
refraining from lying, stealing, adultery, and persecution of the poor and oppressed

100. Mesianism
The belief that God had given the Hebrew people a special mission in the world
Messianism acquired a broad spiritual meaning of bringing proper ethical behavior to all peoples

101. “I will give you as a covenant to the people, as a light to the nations, to open blind eyes, to bring out prisoners from prison, those who sit in darkness”
Isaiah 42:6-7, Holy Bible

102. Meaning in History
History itself has meaning and it moves forward in a progressive, linear fashion
Yahweh acted in history by making specific agreements with particular individuals

103. Human beings worked out their salvation by choosing good over evil
Gave birth to the idea of progress, the notion that the future will be better than the past

104. Phoenicia and the Mediterranean 1200-500 B.C.E.

105. By 1200 B.C.E. the Middle East entered a violent period and mass deportation
Ancient Phoenicians who referred to themselves as Can’ani- migrated into the interior of Syria

106. Can’ani – settled in the interior of Syria
Israelites – settled in the interior of Israel
Philistines – occupied the coast
Philistines introduced iron-based metallurgy

107. Small city-states:
Byblos - distribution center for cedar timber, and papyrus
Tyre – access to silver, food, and trade routes (E/S)

108. Weakness – depended on food and fresh water supplies
All city-states turned to seaborne commerce
Thriving trade - cedar, pine, metals, papyrus, incense, wine, spices, salted fish, textile, ivory

109. Accumulated wealth
Important role in International politics
Rulers of the city-states were leading merchant families
Preserved autonomy
Playing the great powers off against one another
Accepted subordinate relationship when necessary

110. The Phoenician developed an “alphabetic” system of writing
The Greeks added symbols for vowel sounds
Created the first truly alphabetical system of writing

111. Constant conflict with the Greeks over colonies, trade
Both fought for control of Sicily –brutal wars
Carthage – a Phoenician colony controlled all of Sicily by mid 3rd century B.C.E.

112. Carthage Established around 814 B.C.E. Strategic position
Located between hilltop citadel and two harbors
Controlled the middle portion of the Mediterranean

113. The wealthiest and strongest Phoenician outpost
Autocratic city government – political instability
Differences in between the Phoenician settlers and the native Berbers
Frequent wars with the Greeks

114. 425 B.C.E. – expedition to North Africa
Seeking markets, route to Asia
Founded trading posts in Morocco

115. Created an empire
Third century B.C.E. – controlled Spain, much of the north African coast, the islands Sardinia, Corsica

116. City’s central square housed government buildings
Magistrates heard legal cases outdoor
Judges – elected from the elite group
Served as head of state

117. Senate – leading merchant families, served for life
Formulated policies, made decisions
Assembly of the citizens
– elect officials
- vote on important issue
The ruling class – shared the wealth

118. Policy Protected sea lanes Gained access to raw material
Claimed waters of western Mediterranean – its own
Signed treaties with other nation

119. Carthage imported goods – textiles, animal skins, slaves, food
Reexported raw material – silver, iron, tin, lead

120. Carthage was one of the largest cities in the world (population 400,000)
Ethnic diversity – Phoenicians, indigenous peoples, immigrants

121. War and Religion
Allowed city-states in their “empire” to be independent
These city-states looked for military protection, and supported Carthage foreign policy
Sardinia under control – safeguard their agriculture, metal and manpower resources

122. Citizens were not required to serve in the army
Little to fear from North African population
Relied on mercenaries
Separation between the army and civilian government

123. Gods – Baal Hammon – storm-god
Tanit – female fertility figure
Elite – sacrifice their own male children in time of crisis
Tophets – walled enclosures where thousands of small, sealed urns lay buried

124. “The Carthaginians are a hard and Gloomy people, submissive to their
Plutarch – 100 C.E.
“The Carthaginians are a hard and
Gloomy people, submissive to their
Rulers and harsh to their subjects,
Running to extremes of cowardice in times
Of fear and of cruelty in time of anger;
They keep obstinately to their decisions,
Are austere, and care little for amusement or
The grace of life.”
Plutarch, a Greek priest in Delphi, lived around 100 CE and an ambassador, , wrote after the demise of Carthage:
Austere = severe, strict
Obstinately = stubbornly

125. Conclusion
The Late Bronze Age expansion of commerce and communication – stimulated the emergence of new civilizations
The interdependence of the societies of the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean made them vulnerable for destructions and disorder

126. The entire region slipped into a “Dark Age” –
Isolated
Stagnated
Decline lasted several centuries