1. Operant & Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a certain stimulus.
Operant conditioning involves operant behavior, a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli.

2. Operant & Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US).
Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events.
OBJECTIVE 10| Identify the two major characteristics that distinguish classical conditioning from operant conditioning.

3. Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Behaviors that lead to satisfying outcomes are likely to be repeated
Behaviors that lead to undesired outcomes are less likely to recur.

4. B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning
Classical conditioning involves an automatic response to a stimulus
Operant conditioning involves learning how to control one’s response to elicit a reward or avoid a punishment
B.F. Skinner had an enormous influence on psychology in general and on the field of psychology known as behaviorism in particular. His key theories were published in the early 1950s.
As Pavlov’s experiments showed, classical conditioning involves associating a neutral external stimulus with a response that is generally automatic (such as salivating). Skinner’s research revealed the power of operant conditioning, which involves learning how to operate on one’s environment to elicit a particular stimulus (a reward) or to avoid a punishment. In operant conditioning, the subject controls his or her response. You will learn how this works in the next few slides.

5. Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
Types of Reinforcers
Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
OBJECTIVE 13| Compare positive and negative reinforcement, and give one example each of a primary reinforcer, a conditioned, an immediate, and a delayed reinforcer.
Reuters/ Corbis

6. Negative Reinforcement and Punishment
Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus
Punishment = STOP!!!
1. Introducing an unpleasant stimulus
1. Unpleasant stimulus
In operant conditioning, negative reinforcement and punishment are two different things that can be easy to confuse.
The food rewards Skinner used are known as positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement, on the other hand, occurs when an unpleasant stimulus is removed. For example, in one experiment Skinner would play a loud noise inside the box; to make the noise stop, the rat would have to press the bar.
Punishment involves either the introduction of an unpleasant stimulus or the removal of a pleasant stimulus. When Skinner gave a rat a painful electric shock after pushing the bar, the rat learned not to push the bar. Another example of punishment would be a parent withholding dessert from a child who misbehaves at the dinner table. =
2. Removal of unpleasant stimulus
2. Withholding a pleasant stimulus =

7. An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows.
Punishment
An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows.
OBJECTIVE 15| Discuss the ways negative punishment, positive punishment, and negative reinforcement differ, and list some drawbacks of punishment as a behavior-control technique.

9. Skinner’s Experiments
Skinner’s experiments extend Thorndike’s thinking, especially his law of effect. This law states that rewarded behavior is likely to occur again.
OBJECTIVE 11| State Thorndike’s law of effect, and explain its connection to Skinner’s research on operant conditioning.
Yale University Library

10. Operant Chamber
Using Thorndike's law of effect as a starting point, Skinner developed the Operant chamber, or the Skinner box, to study operant conditioning.

11. Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs.
Partial Reinforcement: Reinforces a response only part of the time. Though this results in slower acquisition in the beginning, it shows greater resistance to extinction later on.
OBJECTIVE 14| Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of continuous and partial reinforcement schedules, and identify four schedules of partial reinforcements.

16. The “Skinner Box”: Skinner’s Hypothesis, Methodology, and Results
Rats placed in “Skinner boxes”
Shaped to get closer and closer to the bar in order to receive food
Eventually required to press the bar to receive food
Food is a reinforcer
Skinner hypothesized that rats could be trained to perform specific behaviors in order to receive a food reward. He placed the rats into what is technically called an “operant chamber” but became more commonly known as a “Skinner box.” The soundproof glass box contained a bar or a key that the rat could press down to receive food. This bar or key was hooked up to an instrument that recorded how many times the rat pressed it.
Skinner used a process called “shaping” to teach the rats to press the bar for food. For example, if a rat approached the bar, he might initially give it a pellet of food as a reward for getting close to the bar. Skinner would gradually make the rat get closer to the bar before giving it food. Eventually, the rat learned that it had to press the bar in order to get any food.
The food in this case is referred to as a “reinforcer,” since it reinforces the rat’s behavior of stepping closer to and eventually pressing the bar.

17. Primary & Secondary Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink.
Conditioned Reinforcer: A learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with the primary reinforcer.

18. Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers
Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets a food pellet for a bar press.
Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a week.
We may be inclined to engage in small immediate reinforcers (watching TV) rather than large delayed reinforcers (getting an A in a course) which require consistent study.

19. Shaping
Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations.
OBJECTIVE 12| Describe the shaping procedure, and how it can increase our understanding of what animals and babies can discriminate.
Khamis Ramadhan/ Panapress/ Getty Images
Fred Bavendam/ Peter Arnold, Inc.
A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminate
objects of different shapes, colors and sizes.

21. Ratio Schedules
Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. e.g., piecework pay.
Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. This is hard to extinguish because of the unpredictability. (e.g., behaviors like gambling, fishing.)

22. Interval Schedules
Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. (e.g., preparing for an exam only when the exam draws close.)
Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals, which produces slow, steady responses. (e.g., pop quiz.)

23. Rates and Types of Reinforcement: Additional Experiments
Fixed-ratio: food given after a fixed number of responses
Variable-ratio: number of responses required to get food changes each time
Skinner and his associates tried the following types of reinforcement schedules with animals such as rats and pigeons:
Fixed-ratio: In a fixed-ratio schedule, behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses. For example, an animal might receive food every ten times it presses the bar. After receiving its food reward, the rat presses the bar rapidly until it receives another one.
Variable-ratio: Reinforcement is provided after a variable number of responses. Sometimes the animal receives food after two responses, sometimes after twenty; the number of times the rat has to press the bar varies. Animals press the bar frequently because they know they’ll get more food the more they press.
Fixed-interval: Reinforcement is based on a time schedule. As the time for another reward draws near, the animal will press the bar more often.
Variable-interval: Reinforcement is provided from time to time at a variable rate but is not dependent on how many times the rat presses the bar. The animal tends to press the bar at a slow but steady rate since it has no idea how long it will have to wait for its reward.
Can you think of examples of these types of reinforcement in people’s lives? What about gambling? What about factory work in which people are paid by the number of items they produce? What about jobs that pay hourly wages?
Fixed-interval: food given after a certain amount of time elapses
Variable-interval: amount of time required to get food changes each time

24. Schedules of Reinforcement

25. Examples of Schedules
Slot Machines

26. Extending Skinner’s Understanding
Skinner believed in inner thought processes and biological underpinnings, but many psychologists criticize him for discounting them.

27. Cognition & Operant Conditioning
Rats seem to develop cognitive maps, or mental representations, of the layout of the maze (environment).
OBJECTIVE 16| Explain how latent learning and the effect of external rewards demonstrate that cognitive processing is an important part of learning

28. Latent Learning
Such cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent when an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).

29. Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.
Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments.

30. Overjustification Effect
Occurs when an external incentive such as money or prizes decreases a person's intrinsic motivation to perform a task.
People pay more attention to the incentive, and less attention to the enjoyment and satisfaction that they receive from performing the activity.
Can you think of an example?

31. Biological Predisposition
Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive.
Breland and Breland (1961) showed that animals drift towards their biologically predisposed instinctive behaviors.
OBJECTIVE 17| Explain how biological predisposition place limits on what can be achieved through operant conditioning.

32. Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
Skinner’s Legacy
Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external influences and not inner thoughts and feelings. Critics argued that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will.
OBJECTIVE 22-9| Describe the controversy over Skinner’s views of human behavior.
Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
Psychology 7e in Modules

33. Applications of Operant Conditioning
Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that would shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcements for correct rewards.
OBJECTIVE 22-10| Describe some ways to apply operant conditioning principles at school, at work and at home.
LWA-JDL/ Corbis
In School
Psychology 7e in Modules

34. Applications of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement principles can enhance athletic performance.
In Sports
Psychology 7e in Modules

35. Applications of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now enable employees to share profits and participate in company ownership.
At work
Psychology 7e in Modules

36. Applications of Operant Conditioning
In children reinforcing (good) behaviors increase their occurrence. Ignoring unwanted behaviors decrease their occurrence.
Psychology 7e in Modules

37. Token Economy
A token economy is a system where something, a token, represents a unit of value that can be exchanged for an item or service equal to the value of tokens exchanged.

38. Premack's principle
Premack's principle suggests that if a person wants to perform a given activity, the person will perform a less desirable activity to get at the more desirable activity; that is, activities may themselves be reinforcers.

39. You tell yourself that if you get your homework done, you can go to the gym later. Homework is grueling, while going to the gym releases endorphins and makes you happy. Going to the gym reinforces the less-preferred activity of doing your homework and will make you more likely to do your homework.
A parent compensating a child's time spent doing chores for allowance of time to watch television.
Sally didn't want to go to school, but she knew that when school was over she could go to the movies. The more-preferred activity of having fun at the movies is used to reinforce the less-preferred activity of going to school

40. Skinner’s Importance Education: programmed instruction Work Parenting
Skinner believed that humans learn behavior through reinforcement, much as rats learn to press a bar when that behavior is reinforced with food. His contributions to the fields of psychology and education therefore focused on learned behaviors and reinforcement. For example, Skinner and his followers promoted the use of machines to teach students concepts in small incremental steps, giving them rewards for right answers; this method is called “programmed instruction.” Skinner emphasized the importance of receiving feedback for each step (e.g., for each math problem in a sequence) before going on to the next one. Skinner’s behaviorist ideas have also been used in the workplace to give workers added incentives and to provide immediate reinforcement for good work. Operant conditioning also appears commonly as a parenting technique, as when parents reinforce good behaviors and try to extinguish negative behaviors.
It’s also possible to use Skinner’s techniques to accomplish personal goals. Imagine that you want to spend more time on your psychology homework but never seem to get around to it or feel that you can’t get organized. You could begin by observing how much studying you currently do for this class. You’d then set a goal to study a certain number of minutes or hours more each evening and to reinforce that behavior with a reward (such as candy or time playing a video game). Over time, your study skills would hopefully become more natural and you wouldn’t always need the reward.
Parenting
Personal goals