1. Splash Screen

2. Section 1: Purposes of Personality Theories
Chapter Introduction
Section 1: Purposes of Personality Theories
Section 2: Psychoanalytic Theories
Section 3: Learning Theories
Section 4: Humanistic and Cognitive Theories
Section 5: Trait Theories
Chapter Menu

3. Main Idea
Personality theories provide a way of organizing the many characteristics that people have.
Section 1-Main Idea

4. Purposes of Personality Theories
Personality—the consistent, enduring, and unique characteristics of a person.
Section 1

5. Purposes of Theories Purposes of studying personalities:
To provide a way of organizing characteristics you know about yourself and other people.
To determine whether certain traits go together, why a person has some traits and not others, and why a person might exhibit different traits in different situations.
Section 1

6. Sigmund Freud and the Unconscious
Freud believed there was something behind mistakes.
He believed that the most powerful influences on human personality are the unconscious.
Section 2

7. The Id, Ego, and Superego
Freud believed that the human personality was a kind of energy system.
The energy in personality comes from the life instincts and the death instincts.
Life instincts were erotic or pleasure-seeking urges.
Freud’s Model
Section 2

8. The Id, Ego, and Superego (cont.)
Structural concepts of personality that explain how the mind functions and how the instinctual energies are organized and regulated:
Id- all about me.
Ego- all about others.
Superego- the mediator personality.
Section 2

9. Freud’s Model
The ego tries to balance the demands of the id and the superego and the realities of the world. These interactions and conflicts are represented by arrows in the figure.
Figure 1

10. Id- all about me
Ego- how do my actions effect others?
Superego- based on a moral code, a mediator personality

11. Defense Mechanisms Defense mechanisms are necessary because they:
relieve intolerable confusion and stress.
help people weather intense emotional crises.
give individuals time to work out problems they might not be able to solve otherwise.
Defense Mechanisms
Section 2

12. Defense Mechanisms (cont.)
1. Repression: pushing ideas to your unconscious because they are too tough to deal with
2. Rationalization: Self-deception and distortion of ideas to justify unacceptable behavior
3. Displacement: taking out an impulse on a less threatening object
Section 2

13. Defense Mechanisms (cont.)
4. Regression: showing behavior from an earlier stage of development when a stressful situation occurs
5. Reaction Formation: act contrary to their true feelings in order to keep their true feelings hidden
6. Denial: a person refuses to accept the reality of anything that is bad or upsetting
Section 2

14. 7. Sublimation: channeling impulses into socially acceptable behaviors
8. Projection: dealing with your own impulses by projecting them onto other people

15. Evaluating Freud’s Contribution
Freud’s great contributions to understanding human life were:
the recognition of the tremendous forces that exist in human personality
the difficulty of controlling and handling these forces.
Section 2

16. In Freud’s Footsteps
Carl Jung disagreed with Freud on two major points:
He believed that people try to develop their potential as well as handle their instinctual urges.
He distinguished between the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious.
Section 2

17. Section 2-End

18. Main Idea
Behaviorists are interested in how aspects of personality are learned.
Section 3-Main Idea

19. Vocabulary behaviorism contingencies of reinforcement
Section 3-Key Terms

20. Objectives Describe Skinner’s concept of personality.
Explain Bandura’s social cognitive theory of personality.
Section 3-Objectives

21. Section 3-Polling Question
Do you feel that something must be visible in order to be studied?
A. Yes
B. No
C. Not sure A B C
Section 3-Polling Question

22. B.F. Skinner: Behaviorism
Behaviorism is the belief that as individuals differ in their learning experiences, they acquire different behaviors and, hence, different personalities.
Skinner was interested in how aspects of one’s personality are learned.
Section 3

23. B.F. Skinner: Behaviorism (cont.)
Skinner focused on precisely what causes a person to act in a specific way as opposed to forces that cannot be seen.
Contingencies of reinforcement—the occurrence of rewards or punishments following particular behaviors.
Section 3

24. B.F. Skinner: Behaviorism (cont.)
Behaviorists believe that behavior in general is a combination of specific behaviors that have been reinforced, or learned.
To change behavior, you change the reinforcer.
Section 3

25. According to Skinner, if you get good grades in school, you should
A. Be punished
B. Be rewarded
C. Quit school
D. Attend summer classes A B C D
Section 3

26. Albert Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
Bandura and Richard Walters argued that personality is acquired not only by direct reinforcement of behavior but also by observational learning, or imitation.
People direct their own behavior by their choice of models.
Section 3

27. Albert Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory (cont.)
Reciprocal determinism—the interaction that occurs among the observing individual, the behavior of that individual, and the environment in which the behavior occurs.
Self-efficacy—our view of our ability to succeed—governs our behavior.
This leads to the development of outcome expectations.
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
Section 3

28. Which force do you think has the most influence on your personality?
A. Cognitive-personal factors
B. Behaviors
C. Environmental factors
D. None of the above A B C D
Section 3

29. Section 3-End

30. Main Idea
Humanistic and cognitive theories of personality stress the positive aspects of human nature.
Section 4-Main Idea

31. Vocabulary humanistic psychology self-actualization self
positive regard
conditions of worth
unconditional positive regard
fully functioning
Section 4-Key Terms

32. Objectives Explain Maslow’s idea of self-actualization.
Describe Carl Roger’s view of human behavior.
Section 4-Objectives

33. Section 4-Polling Question
Who do you think has the most influence on your personality?
A. You
B. Your parents
C. Your friends
D. Your teachers A B C D
Section 4-Polling Question

34. Humanistic Psychology
Humanistic psychology is founded on the belief that all human beings strive for self-actualization, or the realization of our potentialities as unique human beings.
Section 4

35. Humanistic Psychology (cont.)
Self-actualization involves:
an openness to a wide range of experiences.
an awareness of and respect for one’ sown and other people’s uniqueness.
accepting the responsibilities of freedom and commitment.
a desire to become more true to oneself.
an ability to grow.
Section 4

36. A B C D Which of the schools of thought do you agree with more?
A. Psychoanalysts
B. Behaviorists
C. Humanists
D. None of the above A B C D
Section 4

37. Abraham Maslow: Growth and Self-Actualization
Maslow tried to base his theory of personality on studies of healthy, creative, self-actualizing people who fully utilize their talents.
Self-actualized people share a number traits, such as being spontaneous, realistically oriented, and creative.
Characteristics of Self-Actualized People
Section 4

38. Abraham Maslow: Growth and Self-Actualization (cont.)
Maslow believed that to become self actualized, a person must first satisfy primary needs—for food and shelter, physical safety, love and belonging, and self-esteem.
Section 4

39. Abraham Maslow: Growth and Self-Actualization (cont.)
Many psychologists have criticized Maslow’s work:
The levels of specific needs have not been defined.
His claim that human nature is good has been called an intrusion of subjective values into what should be a neutral science.
Section 4

40. Abraham Maslow: Growth and Self-Actualization (cont.)
The self-actualizing people he studied were chosen on the basis of his own subjective criteria.
Section 4

41. A B C D Which is NOT a characteristic of a self-actualized person?
A. Realistically oriented
B. Spontaneous
C. Cautious
D. Independent A B C D
Section 4

42. Carl Rogers: Self Theory
Carl Rogers believed that many people suffer from a conflict between what they value in themselves and what they believe other people value in them.
Each person is struggling to become more and more complete and perfect, joining the two sides.
Carl Rogers
Section 4

43. Carl Rogers: Self Theory (cont.)
Each person has a self.
You acquire this self over the years by observing how other people react to you.
You want approval, or positive regard.
Often approval does not come, and a person accepts these verdicts and incorporates conditions of worth.
Section 4

44. Carl Rogers: Self Theory (cont.)
Rogers was convinced that a person copes with conditions of worth by rejecting or denying parts of their person that not fit their self-concept.
The greater the gap between the self and the person, the more limited and defensive a person becomes.
Section 4

45. Carl Rogers: Self Theory (cont.)
The cure for this situation is unconditional positive regard.
Then, the person can become fully functioning, or an individual whose person and self coincide.
Rogers believed the human potential for good and self-fulfillment outweighs the potential for evil and despair.
Section 4

46. A B C D How important do you think unconditional positive regard is?
A. Very important
B. Somewhat important
C. Not very important
D. Not important at all A B C D
Section 4

47. Cognitive Theory
George Kelly introduced the personal construct theory—the idea that our personality consists of our thoughts about ourselves, including our biases, errors, mistakes, and false conclusions.
Aaron T. Beck developed a theory that would concentrate on turning negative thoughts into constructive ones by challenging clients’ fundamentally flawed thought processes.
Section 4

48. A B C D Cognitive theory is based on analysis of what?
A. Our perceptions
B. Our thoughts
C. Our feelings
D. All of the above A B C D
Section 4

49. Section 4-End

50. Main Idea
Trait theorists believe that character traits account for consistency of behavior in different situations.
Section 5-Main Idea

51. Vocabulary trait cardinal trait factor analysis surface trait
source trait
extravert
introvert
Section 5-Key Terms

52. Objectives Explain the main features of trait personality.
Describe Allport’s, Cattell’s, and Eysenck’s theories of personality.
Section 5-Objectives

53. Section 5-Polling Question
From the list below, which trait best describes you?
A. Outgoing
B. Venturesome
C. Intelligent
D. Self-sufficient A B C D
Section 5-Polling Question

54. What is the Trait Theory of Personality
Trait theorists make two basic assumptions about underlying sources of consistency:
Every trait applies to all people.
These descriptions can be quantified.
Section 5

55. What is the Trait Theory of Personality (cont.)
The first and foremost question of the trait theorist is, “What behaviors go together?”
Section 5

56. A B C D Do you agree that every trait applies to all people? A. Yes
B. No
C. It depends on the trait.
D. Not sure A B C D
Section 5

57. Gordon Allport: Identifying Traits
Allport believed that a person’s traits will be consistent in different situations.
He defined common traits as those that apply to everyone and individual traits as those that apply more to a specific person.
Section 5

58. Gordon Allport: Identifying Traits (cont.)
He described three kinds of individual traits:
Cardinal trait
A central trait makes us predictable in most situations.
A secondary trait, such as our preferences in food and music, are least important and have less consistent influence on us.
Section 5

59. According to Allport, our preference in food is what kind of trait?
A. Cardinal
B. Central
C. Secondary
D. None of the above A B C D
Section 5

60. Raymond Cattell: Sixteen Trait Theory
More recent theorists have focused on Allport’s common traits using a tool called factor analysis.
Using Allport’s list of traits, Catell proposed that characteristics that can be observed in certain situations make up 46 traits, called surface traits, of observable behavior.
Section 5

61. Raymond Cattell: Sixteen Trait Theory (cont.)
Cattel noticed that surface traits seem to appear in clusters, which he identified as 16 source traits.
Cattell’s Sixteen Source Traits
Section 5

62. A B C D According to Cattell, how many surface traits are there? A. 22
Section 5

63. Hans Eysenck: Dimensions of Personality
Eysenck believed that there are two basic dimensions of personality (and added a third years later):
Stability versus instability—this dimension deals with the degree to which people have control over their feelings.
Eysenck’s Personality Table
Section 5

64. Hans Eysenck: Dimensions of Personality (cont.)
Extraversion versus introversion
Psychoticism—people who are self centered, hostile, and aggressive versus people who are socially sensitive, empathetic, caring and easy to work with.
Section 5

65. A B C D Being self centered is considered to be which dimension?
A. Stability
B. Extrovertism
C. Psychotism
D. None of the above A B C D
Section 5

66. The Robust Five
Five traits that appear repeatedly in different research studies:
Extraversion—introversion
Agreeableness—cruel, nontrusting
Conscientiousness—impulsive, careless
Openness to experience—fearful of new situations
Emotional stability—neuroticism
Section 5

67. The Robust Five (cont.)
Trait theorists assume that traits are relatively fixed and predictable.
Critics argue that trait theories describe personality rather than explain it.
Harry Stack Sullivan believed that personality is a function of a person’s social environment as well.
Section 5

68. The Robust Five (cont.) Sullivan’s two-dimensional model:
Power—dominance vs. submissiveness
Friendliness—friendliness vs. hostility
Section 5

69. The Robust Five (cont.)
Researchers also noticed that a person’s actions tend to elicit specific responses from other people.
Theories of Personality
Section 5

70. A B C D Which is not part of the “robust five”? A. Intelligence
B. Emotional Stability
C. Conscientiousness
D. Extraversion A B C D
Section 5

71. Section 5-End

72. Freud’s Model
The ego tries to balance the demands of the id and the superego and the realities of the world. These interactions and conflicts are represented by arrows in the figure.
Figure 1

73. Defense Mechanisms
Projection refers to a person seeing attributes of his own personality in others. Repression is shown by a woman who is not only restraining a monstrous impulse but also trying to conceal from herself that she is doing so. The displacement of a widow’s love for her lost husband onto her pets is another defense mechanism.
Figure 3

74. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
According to Bandura’s theory, a person’s personality is shaped by an interaction among three forces—cognitive factors, behaviors, and environmental factors.
Figure 5

75. Cattell’s Sixteen Source Traits
Cattell used his sixteen source traits to develop a personality questionnaire, which was used to measure the traits in an individual. Each trait is listed as a pair of opposites on a continuum.
Figure 6

76. Eysenck’s Personality Table
Eysenck hypothesized that introverted people share a number of traits, while extraverted people share the opposite traits. Eysenck’s theory is similar to Galen’s ancient theory for four temperaments.
Figure 7

77. Theories of Personality
Theories of personality are used to organize personality characteristics, explain differences among individuals, explore how people conduct their lives, and determine how life can be improved.
Figure 8

78. Characteristics of Self-Actualized People
Maslow proposed the concept of a self-actualized personality, which identifies a person with high productivity and enjoyment of life.
Figure 9

79. Carl Rogers 1902–1987
“[T]he client knows what hurts, what directions to go, what problems are crucial, what experiences have been buried.”
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