1. Research Methodology in
Chemistry/Biology
CHEM339/BIOL339
Dr Hidayat Hussain
UoN Chair of Oman’s Medicinal Plants and Marine Natural Products University of Nizwa, Nizwa, Sultanate of Oman

2. Science and Philosophy
Basic Concepts
Science and Philosophy
Chemistry: the study of the properties and structures of substances.
How does a metal react with a gas?
What are the properties of iron?
Philosophy of Chemicals:
What is a substance?
What is the difference between substance and property?
How would we explain the change from one substance to the other?

3. Basic Concepts Science and Philosophy
Science: “Systematized knowledge covering general truths or the operation of general laws, esp. as obtained and tested through scientific method.”
Philosophy: “The study of the most general and abstract features of the world and the categories with which we think. In philosophy the concepts with which we approach the world themselves become the topic of enquiry.”

4. What was the Scientific Revolution?
a new way of thinking about the natural world that challenged traditional views and instead relied upon experimentation.
The scientific revolution was the emergence of modern science during the early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human anatomy) and chemistry transformed views of society and nature

5. WHAT IS THE NATURE OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY?
Certain features of science make it distinctive as a means of understanding the world/universe
Those features are especially characteristic of the work of professional scientists, but anyone can use them to think scientifically about many aspects of everyday life

6. Science Demands Evidence
The validity of scientific claims is settled by referring to observations of phenomena
Therefore, scientists concentrate on getting accurate data

7. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Observe and describe a phenomenon or group of phenomena
Formulate hypotheses to explain the phenomena; hypotheses often take the form of a proposed causal mechanism or mathematical relationship
Use the hypotheses to predict the existence or actions of other phenomena, or to predict quantitatively the results of new observations
Perform additional data collection or repeat experimental tests of the predictions by several independent experimenters using properly performed techniques or experiments

8. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Observations/Data ➔ Hypotheses ➔ Hypothesis Testing ➔ Models ➔ Laws ➔ Theories
At some point in time, each stage must be reported to the larger scientific community by presentations or publications

9. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The scientific method does not allow any hypothesis to be proven true
Hypotheses can be disproven, in which case those hypothesis are rejected as false
A hypothesis which withstands a test designed to falsify it establishes a level of probability that the hypothesis accurately explains data and can be used for further predictions, subject to further tests

13. HYPOTHESIS GENERATION
The use of logic and the close examination of evidence are necessary but not usually sufficient for the advancement of science
A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. 
The English word hypothesis comes from the ancient Greek ὑπόθεσις (hupothesis), meaning "to put under" or "to suppose"

14. THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
An experiment is a study of cause and effect
An experiment is an orderly procedure carried out with the goal of verifying, refuting, or establishing the validity of a hypothesis. Experiments provide insight into cause-and-effect by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is manipulated.

15. SCIENTIFIC LAWS AND THEORIES
A scientific law is a statement based on repeated experimental observations that describes some aspects of the universe. 

17. Science in the medieval Islamic world

18. Science in the medieval Islamic world (also known, less accurately, as Islamic science or Arabic science) was the science developed and practiced in the medieval Islamic world during the Islamic Golden Age.
During this time scholars translated Indian, Assyrian, Iranian and Greek knowledge into Arabic. These translations became a wellspring for scientific advances by scientists from Muslim-ruled areas during the Middle Ages

19. Arabs
al-Battani (850–922) was an astronomer who accurately determined the length of the solar year.
Ibn Ishaq al-Kindi (801–873) was a philosopher and polymath scientist heavily involved in the translation of Greek classics into Arabic.
ibn al-Haytham (965–1040), also known as Alhazen, worked in several fields, but is now known primarily for his achievements in astronomy and optics. 

20. Persians
al-Khwarizmi (ca. 8th–9th centuries) was a Persian mathematician,[32]geographer and astronomer. 
al-Razi (ca. 854–925/935) was a Persian born in Rey, Iran. He was a polymathwho wrote on a variety of topics, but his most important works were in the field of medicine. 
al-Farabi (ca. 870–950) was a Persian/Iranian (born in Farab, Iran) rationalist philosopher and mathematician who attempted to describe, geometrically, the repeating patterns popular in Islamic decorative motifs. 

21. Omar Khayyam (1048–1131) was a Persian poet and mathematician who calculated the length of the year to within 5 decimal places.
Jabir ibn Hayyan (ca. 8th – 9th centuries) was a Persian[42] alchemist who used extensive experimentation and produced many works on science and alchemy which have survived to the present day. Jabir described the laboratory techniques and experimental methods of chemistry. He identified many substances including sulfuric and nitric acid. He described processes including sublimation, reduction and distillation. He utilized equipment such as the alembic and the retort. There is considerable uncertainty as to the actual provenance of many works that are ascribed to him.