1. Anatomy and Physiology, Sixth Edition
Rod R. Seeley Idaho State University
Trent D. Stephens Idaho State University
Philip Tate Phoenix College
Chapter 19
Lecture Outline*
*See PowerPoint Image Slides for all figures and tables pre-inserted into PowerPoint without notes.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

2. Cardiovascular System
Chapter 19
Cardiovascular System
Blood

3. Functions of Blood Transport of: Regulation of pH and osmosis
Gases, nutrients, waste products
Processed molecules
Regulatory molecules
Regulation of pH and osmosis
Maintenance of body temperature
Protection against foreign substances
Clot formation

4. Composition of Blood

5. Plasma Liquid part of blood
Pale yellow made up of 91% water, 9% other
Colloid: Liquid containing suspended substances that don’t settle out
Albumin: Important in regulation of water movement between tissues and blood
Globulins: Immune system or transport molecules
Fibrinogen: Responsible for formation of blood clots

6. Formed Elements Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
White blood cells (leukocytes)
Granulocytes
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Agranulocytes
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Platelets (thrombocytes)

7. Production of Formed Elements
Hematopoiesis or hemopoiesis: Process of blood cell production
Stem cells: All formed elements derived from single population
Proerythroblasts: Develop into red blood cells
Myeloblasts: Develop into basophils, neutrophils, eosinophils
Lymphoblasts: Develop into lymphocytes
Monoblasts: Develop into monocytes
Megakaryoblasts: Develop into platelets

8. Hematopoiesis

9. Erythrocytes Structure Components Function Biconcave, anucleate
Hemoglobin
Lipids, ATP, carbonic anhydrase
Function
Transport oxygen from lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs

10. Hemoglobin Consists of:
4 globin molecules: Transport carbon dioxide (carbonic anhydrase involved), nitric oxide
4 heme molecules: Transport oxygen
Iron is required for oxygen transport

11. Erythropoiesis Production of red blood cells
Stem cells proerythroblasts early erythroblasts intermediate late reticulocytes
Erythropoietin: Hormone to stimulate RBC production

12. Hemoglobin Breakdown

13. Leukocytes
Types
Neutrophils: Small phagocytic cells
Eosinophils: Reduce inflammation
Basophils: Release histamine and increase inflammatory response
Lymphocytes: Immunity
Monocytes: Become macrophages
Protect body against microorganisms and remove dead cells and debris
Movements
Ameboid
Diapedesis
Chemotaxis

14. Leukocytes

15. Five Types of White Blood Cells and Their Functions
There are two different types of white blood cells and each looks different from one another under the microscope.
These include granulocytes and agranulocytes.

16. Granulocytes have visible granules or grains inside the cells that have different cell functions.
Types of granulocytes include basophils, neutrophils, and eosinophils.
Agranulocytes are free of visible grains under the microscope and include lymphocytes and monocytes

17. Together, they coordinate with one another to fight off things like cancer, cellular damage, and infectious diseases.

18. Neutrophils
Neutrophils are the most common type of white blood cell in the body with levels of between 2000 to 7500 cells per mm3 in the bloodstream.
Neutrophils are medium-sized white blood cells with irregular nuclei and many granules that perform various functions within the cell.
Function: Neutrophils function by attaching to the walls of the blood vessels, blocking the passageway of germs that try to gain access to the blood through a cut or infectious area

19. Neutrophils are the first cells to reach an area where a breach in the body has been made.
They kill germs by means of a process known as phagocytosis or “cell-eating”.
Besides eating bacteria one-by-one, they also release a burst of super oxides that have the ability to kill many bacteria at the same time.

20. Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes are small, round cells that have a large nucleus within a small amount of cytoplasm.
They have an important function in the immune system, being major players in the humoral immune system, which is the part of the immune system that relates to antibody production.
Lymphocytes tend to take up residence in lymphatic tissues, including the spleen, tonsils, and lymph nodes.
There are about 1300 to 4000 lymphocytes per mm3 of blood.

21. Function: 
B lymphocytes make antibodies, which is one of the final steps in disease resistance.
When B lymphocytes make antibodies, they prime pathogens for destruction and then make memory cells ready that can go into action at any time, remembering a previous infection with a specific pathogen.
T lymphocytes are another type of lymphocyte, differentiated in the thymus and important in cell-mediated immunity.

22. Monocytes Monocytes are the largest of the types of white blood cells.
There are only about monocytes per mm3 of blood.
Monocytes are agranulocytes, meaning they have few granules in the cytoplasm when seen under the microscope.
Monocytes turn into macrophages when they exit the bloodstream.

23. Function: 
As macrophages, monocytes do the job of phagocytosis (cell-eating) of any type of dead cell in the body, whether it is a somatic cell or a dead neutrophil.
Because of their large size, they have the ability to digest large foreign particles in a wound unlike other types of white blood cells.

24. Eosinophils
There aren’t that many eosinophils in the bloodstream—only about cells per mm3 of blood.
They have large granules that help in cellular functions.
Eosinophils are especially important when it comes to allergies and worm infestations.

25. Function: 
Eosinophils work by releasing toxins from their granules to kill pathogens.
The main pathogens eosinophils act against are parasites and worms.
High eosinophil counts are associated with allergic reactions.

26. Basophils
Basophils are the least frequent type of white blood cell, with only cells per mm3 of blood.
Basophils have large granules that perform functions that are not well known.
They are very colorful when stained and looked at under the microscope, making them easy to identify.

27. Function: 
Basophils have the ability to secrete anticoagulants and antibodies that have function against hypersensitivity reactions in the bloodstream.
They act immediately as part of the immune system’s action against foreign invaders.
Basophils contain histamine, which dilates the vessels to bring more immune cells to the area of injury.

29. Macrophages:
- are the main phagocytes of the body.
Neutrophils:
- are the first responders and become phagocytic when they encounter infectious material.

30. Eosinophils:
- are weakly phagocytic but are important in defending the body against parasitic worms.
Mast cells:
- have the ability to bind with, ingest, and kill a wide range of bacteria.

31. Natural killer cells They are able to lyse and kill : - cancer cells
- virally infected cells
before the adaptive immune system has been activated

32. Leukocytes

33. Thrombocytes
Cell fragments pinched off from megakaryocytes in red bone marrow
Important in preventing blood loss
Platelet plugs
Promoting formation and contraction of clots

34. Hemostasis Arrest of bleeding Events preventing excessive blood loss
Vascular spasm: Vasoconstriction of damaged blood vessels
Platelet plug formation
Coagulation or blood clotting

35. Platelet Plug Formation

36. Coagulation Stages Pathways Activation of prothrombinase
Conversion of prothrombin to thrombin
Conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin
Pathways
Extrinsic
Intrinsic

37. Clot Formation

38. Fibrinolysis
Clot dissolved by activity of plasmin, an enzyme which hydrolyzes fibrin

39. Blood Grouping
Determined by antigens (agglutinogens) on surface of RBCs
Antibodies (agglutinins) can bind to RBC antigens, resulting in agglutination (clumping) or hemolysis (rupture) of RBCs
Groups
ABO and Rh

40. ABO Blood Groups

41. Agglutination Reaction

42. Rh Blood Group First studied in rhesus monkeys Types
Rh positive: Have these antigens present on surface of RBCs
Rh negative: Do not have these antigens present
Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN)
Mother produces anti-Rh antibodies that cross placenta and cause agglutination and hemolysis of fetal RBCs

43. Erythroblastosis Fetalis

44. Diagnostic Blood Tests
Type and crossmatch
Complete blood count
Red blood count
Hemoglobin measurement
Hematocrit measurement
White blood count
Differential white blood count
Clotting

45. Blood Disorders Erythrocytosis: RBC overabundance
Anemia: Deficiency of hemoglobin
Iron-deficiency
Pernicious
Hemorrhagic
Hemolytic
Sickle-cell
Hemophilia
Thrombocytopenia
Leukemia
Septicemia
Malaria
Infectious mononucleosis
Hepatitis