2. As you look around you, notice that you don't really see edges and lightness/color differences. Instead, you see books, chairs, people. How does the information that we extract from our environment lead to the perception of such objects?
• As you look around you, notice that you don't really see edges and lightness/color differences. Instead, you see books, chairs, people. How does the information that we extract from our environment lead to the perception of such objects?
That's the key question that motivates many researchers in visual perception. If you're like most people, your experience is that perceiving objects is immediate and effortless. Nonetheless, the processes that underlie your perceptual experience are many and complex.

3. In order for us to survive in this world, we must perceive it fairly accurately. However, it's also the case that our visual system can misperceive an object in the world, or perceive the same stimulus in multiple ways. You should find these experiences intriguing. They are also potentially quite informative about the way our visual system perceives objects.
• In order for us to survive in this world, we must perceive it fairly accurately. However, it's also the case that our visual system can misperceive an object in the world, or perceive the same stimulus in multiple ways. You should find these experiences intriguing. They are also potentially quite informative about the way our visual system perceives objects.
The theory of Gestalt or gestaltism (German: Gestalt – “shape” or “figure”) of the Berlin School is a theory of mind and brain positing that the operational principle of the brain is holistic, parallel, and analog, with self-organizing tendencies, or that the whole is different from the sum of its parts. The Gestalt effect refers to the form-forming capability of our senses, particularly with respect to the visual recognition of figures and whole forms instead of just a collection of simple lines and curves. In psychology, gestaltism is often opposed to structuralism and Wundt.

5. The Gestalt effect refers to the form-forming capability of our senses, particularly with respect to the visual recognition of figures and whole forms instead of just a collection of simple lines and curves.

6. GESTALT PRINCIPLES OF VISUAL ORGINIZATION
Gestalt is a German word for 'shape' or 'form' in English. We can say that a "form shift" is: an involuntary perceptual jump from one shape [or, form or pattern] to another, e.g. from the duck-shape to the rabbit-shape. By 'Gestalt shift' we may mean: seeing a single pattern now as this, now as that: e.g. now the duck, now the rabbit; this is an involuntary visual shift from first one "aspect" (Wittgenstein-Anscombe's word) or form/shape to then another "aspect" or form/shape, without the pattern itself changing: all that changes is our perception of the pattern: asked to draw now the duck, now the rabbit, we will produce identical drawings.
gestalt shift - what is it?

7. Gestalt is a German word for 'shape' or 'form' in English
Gestalt is a German word for 'shape' or 'form' in English. We can say that a “gestalt shift” or a “form shift" is: an involuntary perceptual jump from one shape [or form or pattern] to another.
Gestalt is a German word for 'shape' or 'form' in English. We can say that a "form shift" is: an involuntary perceptual jump from one shape [or form or pattern] to another. By 'Gestalt shift' we may mean: seeing a single pattern now as this, now as that: e.g. now the duck, now the rabbit; this is an involuntary visual shift from first one "aspect" (Wittgenstein-Anscombe's word) or form/shape to then another "aspect" or form/shape, without the pattern itself changing: all that changes is our perception of the pattern: asked to draw now the duck, now the rabbit, we will produce identical drawings.

8. without the pattern itself changing: all that changes is our perception of the pattern
an involuntary perceptual jump from one shape [or, form or pattern] to another, e.g. from the duck-shape to the rabbit-shape.
DUCK / RABBIT IMAGE BEHIND BLUE TEXT BOX, WILL DISSOLVE ON 2ND CLICK. FIRST CLICK WILL DISSOLVE “GESTALT” AT THE TOP OF THE SLIDE.
By 'Gestalt shift' we may mean: seeing a single pattern now as this, now as that: e.g. now the duck, now the rabbit; this is an involuntary visual shift from first one "aspect" (Wittgenstein-Anscombe's word) or form/shape to then another "aspect" or form/shape, without the pattern itself changing: all that changes is our perception of the pattern: asked to draw now the duck, now the rabbit, we will produce identical drawings.

9. How many circles can you see in this picture
How many circles can you see in this picture? Focus on the cross and they'll start to appear!

10. At which number is the triangle pointing?
                                    
                                
Direction equilateral triangle points to 3,7,or 11 o’clock – yield ambiguity
Notice that when one triangle seems to point in a certain direction so do all those around it. 
At which number is the triangle pointing? 3? 7?
11?

11. Are these all pointing the same direction?
Why?
Notice that when one triangle seems to point in a certain direction so do all those around it. 
What direction are the triangles pointing? Are they all pointing the same direction?

12. Often times, the phrase “The whole is greater than the sum of the parts” is used when explaining Gestalt theory.

13. We can recognize an object even when we see it from different perspectives. However, some perspectives are more challenging than others. The bottle is more difficult to identify when seen from directly above. Even though some of the other viewpoints are atypical, they lead to easier identification.

14. An easy way to understand Gestalt Theory is by imagining that we are baking a cake. The ingredients for the cake are arranged on a counter, but individual ingredients cannot begin to describe the cake. For example, an egg might be a cake ingredient. If we examine the egg, it tells us about the egg, but not how it will be used to create a cake. It is only when assembled that the ingredients form the completed product. The whole cannot be seen by looking only at the individual elements.

15. Gestalt Theory
Gestalt Theory is a set of rules for describing how the various ingredients of visual art come together to form the whole. Gestalt is the German word for “form, shape, pattern, or configuration.” “Good gestalt” is when elements work together to create a unified aesthetic. Gestalt Theory helps explain many of the abstract principles used in the visual arts.

16. “Good gestalt” is when elements work together to create a unified aesthetic.

17. Principles of grouping
Prägnanz
Principles of grouping

18. The fundamental principle of gestalt perception is the law of prägnanz (German for pithiness) which says that we tend to order our experience in a manner that is regular, orderly, symmetric, and simple.
The fundamental principle of gestalt perception is the law of prägnanz (German for pithiness) which says that we tend to order our experience in a manner that is regular, orderly, symmetric, and simple. Gestalt psychologists attempt to discover refinements of the law of prägnanz, and this involves writing down laws which hypothetically allow us to predict the interpretation of sensation, what are often called "gestalt laws".
Prägnanz
The most basic rule of gestalt is the law of prägnanz. This law says that we try to experience things in as good a gestalt way as possible. In this sense, "good" can mean several things, such as regular, orderly, simplistic, symmetrical, etc.

19. Gestalt psychologists attempt to discover refinements of the law of prägnanz, and this involves writing down laws which hypothetically allow us to predict the interpretation of sensation, what are often called "gestalt laws". These include…

20. Continuance/ Directional Force Similarity/ Repetition
Closure/ Reification
Similarity/ Repetition
Proximity/ Emergence
Symmetry
Invariance
Gestalt Perception
Gestalt Perception is based upon the observations that people desire to order their visual experience in a manner that is regular, orderly, symmetric and simple. It is a general description for the concepts that make unity and variety possible in design. The study of gestalt originated in Germany in the 1920s.  Gestalt Psychology (aka Gestalt Theory) is a theory that proposes that the brain functions on a self-organizing level and seeks to find order and relation. Gestalt is a word that roughly translates to “whole” or “form.”  It is all about how the sum of the parts produces a “whole." In design, the elements we choose and where we place them form the gestalt or the whole of the composition.
The visual world is so complex that the mind has developed strategies for coping with the confusion. The mind tries to find the simplest solution to a problem. One of the ways it does this is to form groups of items that have certain characteristics in common.  In fact, a viewer automatically looks for objects to group in an effort to simplify any composition. 
When employing the elements of Gestalt perception, the challenge for the designer is to provide unity in the composition but to not allow the composition to sink into slavish adherence to gestalt principles and provide no variety and interest to hold the viewer’s attention.
Gestalt Perception (also referred to as the Law of Conciseness) is characterized by the following concepts, which deal specifically with the concept of figure and ground:
Closure/ Reification Continuance/ Directional Force
Similarity/ Repetition Proximity/ Emergence Symmetry Invariance

21. Lines are seen as following the smoothest path.
In the image above, the top branch is seen as continuing the first segment of the line. This allows us to see things as flowing smoothly without breaking lines up into multiple parts
Lines are seen as following the smoothest path.
In the image above, the top branch is seen as continuing the first segment of the line. This allows us to see things as flowing smoothly without breaking lines up into multiple parts

22. Continuance/ Directional Force
Continuance describes a device for directing the viewer's attention when looking at a composition. It is based on the idea that once you start looking in a particular direction you will continue looking in that direction until you see something significant.
Continuance/ Directional Force
Continuance describes a device for directing the viewer's attention when looking at a composition. It is based on the idea that once you start looking in a particular direction you will continue looking in that direction until you see something significant.
Devices that Direct a viewer’s gaze: Hands pointing Eyes Linear elements/ Paths such as rivers, roads, etc. Illusion of depth, esp. point perspective Repetition of objects

23. Linear element pointing
Devices that Direct a viewer’s gaze: Hands pointing Eyes Linear elements/ Paths such as rivers, roads, etc. Illusion of depth, esp. point perspective Repetition of objects
Linear element pointing

24. Linear element pointing
Devices that Direct a viewer’s gaze:
Strong linear element in strong & intense blue Repetition of lines
of textures
color schemes (red/green in foreground and middle ground)
Contrasts –
colors
intensity
values

25. Illusion of Distance Illusion of Distance
Devices that Direct a viewer’s gaze:

26. Eye gaze
Eye gaze
Devices that Direct a viewer’s gaze:

27. Repetition of shape or objects
Repetition shape or objects
Devices that Direct a viewer’s gaze: Hands pointing Eyes Linear elements/ Paths such as rivers, roads, etc. Illusion of depth, esp. point perspective Repetition of objects
Repetition of
shape or objects

28. Objects grouped together are seen as a whole
Objects grouped together are seen as a whole. We tend to ignore gaps and complete contour lines.
Law of closure – Objects grouped together are seen as a whole. We tend to ignore gaps and complete contour lines.
We tend to ignore gaps and complete contour lines. In the image above, there are no triangles or circles, but our minds fill in the missing information to create familiar shapes and images.
In the image above, there are no triangles or circles, but our minds fill in the missing information to create familiar shapes and images.

29. In Closure or Reification, the viewer fills in more information than actually given.
Closure/ Reification
A complex object is really a group of simple items that the mind puts together as a single entity. Closure is the mind’s attempt to “fill in the gaps.”  The mind is more likely to try to simplify multiple shapes into one recognizably simpler form than look at the complex shapes individually.
Closure
Although the information of the circle continues to disappear, the mind wants to fill in the gaps to make sense of the image.  Hence we still continue to “see” a circle.

30. Reification
This  is the constructive or generative aspect of perception, by which the experienced percept contains more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus on which it is based.
For instance, a triangle will be perceived in picture A, although no triangle has actually been drawn. In pictures B and D the eye will recognize disparate shapes as “belonging” to a single shape, in C a complete three-dimensional shape is seen, where in actuality no such thing is drawn.
Reification can be explained by progress in the study of illusory contours, which are treated by the visual system as “real” contours.

31. A man on horseback?

32. Law of Similarity
Law of Similarity — The mind groups similar elements into collective entities or totalities. This similarity might depend on relationships of form, color, size, or brightness.
Law of Similarity — The mind groups similar elements into collective entities or totalities. This similarity might depend on relationships of form, color, size, or brightness.

33. Items that are similar tend to be grouped together.
In the image above, most people see vertical columns of circles and squares.
Laws of Similarity
Items that are similar tend to be grouped together.
In the image above, most people see vertical columns of circles and squares.

34. Similarity/ Repetition
The mind groups similar elements into collective entities.  That is one of the reasons repetition is so effective. There are 3 major similarity types:
Size- objects of different sizes regardless of shape tend to get grouped together.

35. Shape- objects of the same shape tend to get grouped together.

36. Value/Color is also a grouping method
Value/Color is also a grouping method.  The smaller dots of the same color are perceived more as a unit rather than separate circles.

37. Why Spelling Isn’t Important

38. Olny srmat poelpe can raed tihs
            Olny srmat poelpe can raed tihs. I cdnuolt blveiee taht I cluod aculalty uesdnatnrd waht I was rdanieg. The phaonmneal pweor of the hmuan mnid, aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrige Uinervtisy, it deosn’t mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be in the rghit pclae. The rset can be a taotl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit a porbelm.
Tihs is bcuseae the huamnb mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe. Amzanig huh? Yaeh and I awlyas tghuhot slpeling was ipmorantt!

39. Objects near each other tend to be grouped together.
The circles on the left appear to be grouped in vertical columns, while those on the right appear to be grouped in horizontal rows

41. Law of Proximity
Law of Proximity — Spatial or temporal proximity of elements may induce the mind to perceive a collective or totality.
Objects near each other tend to be grouped together, even if they are not similar

42. Proximity- Close Proximity/ Emergence
Proximity deals with the idea that objects that may have no similarities apart from their closeness to one another are still likely to be grouped together visually. Objects may be simply closer to one object than another, they may touch, they may overlap or be a combination of these.
Proximity Objects may simply be closer to one thing than another, they may touch, they may overlap or a combination of techniques may be used.
Proximity- Close    

43. Proximity- Touching

44. Proximity- Overlap

45. Proximity- Combination

46. 1.                                           
2.                                           
3.                                           
4.                                           
5.                                           
6.                                           
7.                                           
8.                                           
9.                                           
How do you organize the following nine stimuli? Do you see the squares as rows, columns, or neither? Which Gestalt principles seem to be operating to lead to that organization? Note that some of the stimuli pit one principle (e.g., proximity) against another principle (e.g., similarity).

47. FIGURE / GROUND GESTALT PERCEPTION
Figure/Ground and Gestalt Perception
Figure/Ground refers to the positive and negative/background within a composition. One cannot exist without the other. The form of the figure creates the form of the ground. Each must have interest and purpose within the composition. The designer controls the success of the composition through the deliberate and creative manipulation of these two major elements. There are two basic forms of figure/ground: Integrated and Ambiguous.

48. Figure/Ground and Gestalt Perception Figure/Ground refers to the positive and negative/background within a composition. One cannot exist without the other. The form of the figure creates the form of the ground. Each must have interest and purpose within the composition. The designer controls the success of the composition through the deliberate and creative manipulation of these two major elements. There are two basic forms of figure/ground: Integrated and Ambiguous.

49. Integrated Figure/Ground
means that the viewer can tell the difference between the focal or positive elements and the background or negative elements in a composition.
Integrated Figure/Ground
Integrated Figure/Ground means that the viewer can tell the difference between the focal or positive elements and the background or negative elements in a composition.
Here are obvious examples of a black positive shape on a white negative ground. This is a simple example of Integrated Figure/Ground.
Here is the same image with the value reversed:
Do you now see black objects with square holes cut out? Even the simplest of images can be simply altered yet radically change the viewer's perception of the composition.

50.  Here is the same image with the value reversed:
Do you now see black objects with square holes cut out? Even the simplest of images can be simply altered yet radically change the viewer's perception of the composition.

51. HOW TO USE FIGURE/GROUND There will be some kind of figure/ground relationship in every composition you make. One of the best things you can do for your designs is to try to make them as interesting as possible. The best way to do this is to make the ground function as a significant part of the image.
This can be controlled by making the amount of the ground appropriate to the situation -- not too much and not too little.
You can make the ground interesting by making it into simple, attractive shapes. That is what you should have done with this project. It is also what you should have done with the Figure/Ground project. If you did, this last project was easier to make.
The ground can also be made more interesting by filling it with the right color(s) and/or texture(s). Color can be an effective attention controlling device, especially if you consider value contrasts. Texture decorates a surface and can make it more (or less if you wish) appealing.
The concepts that you learn in this course will put you in charge of what viewers see when they look at your images. You need to learn how each works and how to use them in a variety of situation. The concepts taught will build on each other. You need to use each one every time you design to be effective.

52. Combining Integrated and Ambiguous Figure/Ground MC Escher- Water Sky 1938

53. And PERCEPTION is what it's all about....

54. AMBIGUOUS FIGURE / GROUND:
in which the same part could be seen either as figure or ground…
and shift back and forth…

55. Multistability
We can see the two-dimensional figure below as a [three-dimensional] cube. There are [at least] two ways to do this, and the switch between the two is called a 'Gestalt shift'. It is not a voluntary shift, although one can try to bring it about.
If I fix my eyes first on the corners a and only glance at b, a appears in front and b behind, and vice versa. (Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus , tr. Ogden)
We [i.e. most people, or, It is the common experience that we] can see this figure as two differently oriented cubes. That is, I can see either face a, a, a, a as the face of the cube that is nearest me (at lower left), or I can see face b, b, b, b as the face of the cube that is nearest me (at upper right). The visual experience of first seeing it one way and then another is called a 'Gestalt shift'. The shift is actually more like a snap; it is not gradual but instant; and it may shift back despite our unwillingness for it to do so.

56. …the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth unstably between two or more alternative interpretations. Gestalt does not explain how images appear multistable, only that they do.
Multistability – the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth unstably between two or more alternative interpretations.

57. Multistability
Or multistable perception is the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth unstably between two or more alternative interpretations. This is seen for example in the Necker cube, and in Rubin’s Figure / Vase illusion. Other examples include the ‘three-pronged widget’ and artist M. C. Escher’s artwork and the appearance of flashing marquee lights moving first one direction and then suddenly the other. Again, Gestalt does not explain how images appear multistable, only that they do.

58. The visual experience of first seeing it one way and then another is called a 'Gestalt shift'. The shift is actually more like a snap; it is not gradual but instant; and it may shift back despite our unwillingness for it to do so.

60. Emergence. Do you see the face or the flora first?

61. Figure-Ground Relationships Which is figure and which is ground in this picture? Probably, the cross with the radial marks looks like the figure, and the one with the concentric circles looks like the ground, continuing behind the figure. With some effort you can force the radially marked cross to become the ground and the concentrically marked cross to become the figure. In some cases, such as the Rubin face-vase illusion, it's relatively simple to change figure to ground and vice versa. Why is it more difficult to do so in this case? It's probably due to the fact that it's easier to organize the cross with the concentric circles as ground because the circles can be perceived as going behind the radially marked cross. When you perceive the cross with the concentric circles as figure, it's much more difficult to imagine the radial lines going behind the cross.

62. Hans Hillmann- Poster for the film The Bartered Bride, 1972
Amiguous Figure/Ground
Ambiguous Figure/Ground (also referred to as Multistability) is created when the positive and negative elements combine in such as way as to leave the viewer moving between both equally.  In other words, both areas fight for dominance with no distinct winner.  This is not a bad thing when used on purpose…
Our understanding of the imagery is that we see first one element then another that subordinates the first.  The back and forth effect of imagery within the composition is the hallmark of Ambiguous Figure/Ground.

63. Multicanal Logo Design where the figure of the stars creates a negative of an "M" for the company name. Here again is an excellent example of Ambiguous Figure/Ground and of how the positive forms create the shapes of the negative areas.
The more the designer understands how people see and process visual information, the more successful he/she will be at effectively and creatively communicating through composition.

64. Ambiguous Figure/Ground. It is easy to see the word "figure
Ambiguous Figure/Ground. It is easy to see the word "figure." Can you also see the word "ground?"

66. Why does FedEx use this as it’s logo?

67. How does Hershey reinforce the Kiss on its label?

68. have never really looked at the Toblerone logo before, it's just an image of the Swiss Alps. How wrong I was. The chocolate, most famous for being the standard chocolate along with a chocolate orange to receive at Christmas time, has a hidden surprise in it's logo. Toblerone originated in Bern, a city whose name supposedly means City of Bears. Now look closely at the logo and you'll find a bear.

70. This logo is among one of my favorite logos…brilliant use of negative space makes this logo extraordinary. It has been designed by Ronald J. Cala II for Children’s Book, Editorial. The “Black and White” graphics show the silhouettes of two running children with a dove forming between their clasped hands.
For the first glance the logo shows “Africa’s Map” but with a penetrating look you will see the outlined face of a child and a protective elderly figure. In fact I noticed the faces first and then saw the map…strange?
This famous logo is extremely clean and simple but this arrow might not look like more than a smile to you. Before, coming to any conclusions I would like you to know the concept behind this…it says that amazon.com has everything from a to z and it also represents the smile brought to the customer’s face.

71. Emergence refers to the way complex systems and patterns arise out of a multiplicity of relatively simple interactions. Visually, the mind does not want to take in the individual parts of a pattern but rather wants to find order and imagery in the whole. Think cloud pictures.

72. Emergence Emergence refers to the way complex systems and patterns arise out of a multiplicity of relatively simple interactions. Visually, the mind does not want to take in the singular elements of a pattern but rather seeks to find order and imagery in the whole. Think cloud pictures.

73. Emergence
EMERGENCE
This is demonstrated by the perception of the Dog Picture, which depicts a Dalmatian dog sniffing the ground in the shade of overhanging trees. The dog is not recognized by first identifying its parts (feet, ears, nose, tail, etc.), and then inferring the dog from those component parts. Instead, the dog is perceived as a whole, all at once. However, this is a description of what occurs in vision and not an explanation. Gestalt theory does not explain how the percept of a dog emerges.
The dog is not recognized by first identifying its parts (feet, ears, nose, tail, etc.), and then inferring the dog from those component parts. Instead, the dog is perceived as a whole, all at once.

74. Horses on snowy rocks

78. Symmetry The principle of symmetry describes the instance where the whole of a grouping is perceived as simpler than the individual parts which make up the figure. It is also based on the idea that symmetrical objects are more likely to be grouped together despite distance or partial concealment. AGAIN, WHAT YOUR BRAIN WANTS TO SEE
Symmetry
The principle of symmetry describes the instance where the whole of a grouping is perceived as simpler than the individual parts which make up the figure. It is also based on the idea that symmetrical objects are more likely to be grouped together despite distance or partial concealment.

79. Do you see a red disc overlapping a black disc?
The mind wants to simplify and unify both forms. A crescent is a more complex shape and also NON-SYMMETRICAL. Most people don't even think of the crescent form as a possibility when presented with the two shapes side by side.
Symmetry
The principle of symmetry describes the instance where the whole of a grouping is perceived as simpler than the individual parts which make up the figure. It is also based on the idea that symmetrical objects are more likely to be grouped together despite distance or partial concealment.
The mind wants to simplify and unify both forms. A crescent is a more complex shape and also NON-SYMMETRICAL. Most people don't even think of the crescent form as a possibility when presented with the two shapes side by side.

80. Do you see two large diamond shapes overlapping?
OR…
If we break this example apart, it is quite complex. While these shapes are symmetrical, they are more complex than the mind wants to deal with when taken as a whole as in the first image.

81. Invariance is the property of perception whereby simple geometrical objects are recognized independent of rotation, translation and scale, as well as other variations

82. Which group is different from the other 3?
Invariance
Invariance is the property of perception whereby simple geometrical objects are recognized independent of rotation, translation and scale, as well as several other variations such as elastic deformations, different lighting and different component features.
For example, the objects in A in the figure are all immediately recognized as the same basic shape, which are immediately distinguishable from the forms in B. They are even recognized despite perspective and elastic deformations as in C, and when depicted using different graphic elements as in D.
Most people will quickly recognize that all but the upper right grouping are the same objects despite being somewhat altered through rotation, warping or shading.

83. The Take-Aways when you design the next time, ask yourself the following questions:
• How will my design be perceived by the learner? • Are similar objects grouped? • Is the “ground” also giving a message (whether intended or otherwise)? • Will symmetry onscreen lead the learner to group objects that are actually supposed to be logically apart? • Is there a scope of my design being that could be misinterpreted? Remember, Gestalt principles are a set of tools for controlling how your designs are perceived. They can help you become a better designer and communicate better through design.