1. THE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDICES
11/19/2018
THE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDICES
M.H. Suryanarayana
IGIDR
Mumbai

2. Human Development Index
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Human Development Index
Lecture Outline
Why was the HDI created?
What is the Human Development Index (HDI)?
What does the HDI tell us: evidence from the Human Development Report 2005.
Is the HDI measure a foolproof measure of human development?
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3. Human Development Index
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Human Development Index
Why was the HDI created?
Limitations of GNP: GNP may grow due to sale of knives and rifles ..does not allow health of children, quality of education, or the joys of their play…
For cross-country comparisons..
Assess progress in human development across countries.
Assess individual development with reference to ‘well-being’
Though open to criticism, serves as a basic indicator and allows ranking of countries in terms of human development
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4. Human Development Index
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Human Development Index
Why was the HDI created?, Cont…
Certainly not easy to gather the relevant information for each United Nations country!!
Just think of the statistics and logistics that are required to generate HDI for 177 countries!!!
The HDI can signal where problems lie which are important for both country policy makers and international policy makers and agencies – this really indicates the importance of information in the modern day world and indeed the importance of information and how this is processed for resource allocation.
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5. Human Development Index
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Human Development Index
What is the Human Development Index (HDI)?
“The human development index (HDI) is a composite index that measures the average achievements in a country in three basic dimensions of human development: a long and healthy life, as measured by life expectancy at birth; knowledge, as measured by the adult literacy rate and the combined gross enrolment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools; and a decent standard of living, as measured by GDP per capita in purchasing power parity (PPP) US dollars”
(United Nations(2005): Human Development Report 2005, p. 214)
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6. Human Development Index
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Human Development Index
What is the Human Development Index (HDI)? Cont…
Dual dimension of HD:
Formation of human capabilities: improved health, knowledge and skills
Using the capabilities for productive work or leisure.
HDI: concerned with the first only and measures average formation of human capabilities
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7. Human Development Index
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Human Development Index
What is the Human Development Index (HDI)? Cont…
Composite index measuring key dimensions of human capabilities
HDI introduced in HDR of 1990, with an HDI for 1987, and has since become universally known
UNDP’s annual HD report eagerly awaited globally
Technically the HDI involves calculating a series of indices using primary data gathered from a number of different international agencies (e.g. UN, World Bank, ILO, IMF etc…).
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8. Human Development Index
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Human Development Index
What is the Human Development Index (HDI)? Cont…
Since the HDI was first published, it has gained wide recognition as a powerful tool for advocating for and monitoring human development.
The HDI is constantly being monitored and trends in HDI performance are re-calculated with better information in order to provide the best picture of human development over time.
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9. The Human Development Indices
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The Human Development Indices
The HDI (Human Development Index)
- a summary measure of human development
The GDI (Gender-related Development Index)
- the HDI adjusted for gender inequality
The GEM (Gender Empowerment Measure)
- Measures gender equality in economic and political participation and decision making
The HPI (Human Poverty Index)
- Captures the level of human poverty
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10. Human Development Index
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Human Development Index
What is ‘Human Development’?
- process of enlarging people’s choices
But choices are infinite in number and change overtime; if so, how to measure HD?
- Identify the most critical choices, measure achievements in enlarging these choices, and aggregate these achievements into an index, which can be used for inter-country comparisons.
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11. Human Development Index
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Human Development Index
What are the most critical human choices?
- Long and healthy life
- Knowledge
- Decent standard of living
HDR 1990: Health, Education & Income – Most critical dimensions of Human Development
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12. Human Development Index
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Human Development Index
How to measure the critical dimensions?
Issues related to data like measurement, collection and quality should be minimum
Each indicator should be universally valued; conceptual problems should be minimum in terms of relevance and sensitivity
Values of each indicator should be comparable across countries
What could be such measures?
Longevity: Life Expectancy at birth
Knowledge: Adult Literacy rate & Gross Enrolment Ratio in primary, secondary and tertiary levels
Std. of Living: per capita GDP (PPP US$)
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13. Human Development Index
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Human Development Index
Statistical indicators used in HDI are
life expectancy at birth
adult literacy and gross enrolment in primary, secondary and tertiary levels
per capita GDP (PPP US$)
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14. Human Development Index
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Human Development Index
Life expectancy at birth: # of years a new born infant would live subject to the prevailing patterns of age specific mortality rates
Adult literacy rate: % of people ages 15 & above capable of reading and writing (with understanding) a simple statement.
Gross enrolment ratio: # of students enrolled in a level of education (irrespective of age) as a % of the population of official school age for that level.
GDP (PPP US $): GDP converted US dollars at a rate of exchange that takes into account price differences across countries.
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15. Human Development Index
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Human Development Index
How to aggregate when the measures differ in units & hence are not comparable?
- Normalization w.r.t bounds:
Normalized Score = Actual Value – Minimum Value
Range
Where Range = (Maximum value – Minimum value)
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16. Goalposts for calculating the HDI
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Goalposts for calculating the HDI
Indicator
Minimum value
Maximum value
Life expectancy
25 years
85 years
Adult literacy 0%
100%
Gross enrolment
GDP per capita
100 (PPP US$)
40,000 (PPP US$)
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17. The HDI Calculating the HDI Dimensions: Indicators: Dimension index
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Dimensions:
Indicators:
Dimension
index
A long and
healthy life
Life
Expectancy
Index
Being
Knowledgeable
Literacy &
Enrolment
Education
Index
A decent
standard
of living
GDP
per capita
Index
The HDI
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18. Calculating the HDI HDI 1/3 1/3 1/3
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Calculating the HDI
HDI
1/3
1/3
1/3
PPP per capita income with declining weight for higher incomes
Life expectancy
Education
1/3
2/3
Primary, secondary and tertiary enrolment
Adult literacy
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The weights in the HDI
The three dimensions in the HDI – health, education, standard of living – weighted equally
Equal weighting is not an accident; reflects a belief that all three are equally important
Assumption of substitutability – central, but sometimes forgotten
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20. Calculating the HDI: an example (Zambia)
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Life expectancy index
Education index
Income index
HDI
Literacy (2/3)
Enrolment (1/3)
100%
100% 1
85 years 1
40,000 1 1
78.1
0.68 49
0.433
780
0.34
41.4
0.27 0% 0%
100
25 years
(log scale)
= 0.433 3
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21. Calculating the HDI: Afghanistan 2002
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Life expectancy index
Education index
Income index
HDI
Rank=173
Literacy (2/3)
Enrolment (1/3)
100%
100% 1
85 years 1
40,000 1 1
44.9
0.346
0.34
822
0.36
44.5
0.33
28.7 0% 0%
100
25 years
(log scale)
= 0.346 3
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22. Calculating the HDI: Afghanistan 2005
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Life expectancy index
Education index
Income index
HDI
Rank = 174
Literacy (2/3)
Enrolment (1/3)
100%
100% 1
85 years 1
40,000 1 1
59.3
964
0.345
0.35
0.34
43.1
0.30
23.5 0% 0%
100
25 years
(log scale)
= 0.345 3
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23. HDI Computation: Nepal 1996
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HDI Computation: Nepal 1996
Life Expect.
ALR
# yrs school
GDPPC (US $ PPP)
55.0
36.72
2.25
1186
Normalized Scores
Life expectancy= (55-25) / (85-25) = 0.50
Adult literacy rate: (36.72 – 0) / (100 – 0) = 0.367
# yrs. of schooling: = ( ) / (15 - 0) = 0.15
Education Index = (2/3) x (1/3) x 0.15 = 0.295
GDP : {log (1186) – log(100)} / {log(10000) – log(100)} = 0.413
HDI = (1/3) ( ) =
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Calculating the HDI
As for any index, the key thing is how to rank different countries – the HDI uses minimum and maximum values of average age expectancy, of average education level and of average GDP per capita (using purchasing power parity information so takes into account the cost of living in each country relative to a base currency (the $US).
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25. Interpretation
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The simple rule of interpretation of the various HDI measures is the higher the HDI the better the country.
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26. Advantages: Tool for advocacy Ranking of areas
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Advantages:
Tool for advocacy
Ranking of areas
Tool for research (if composite measure of development is needed)
More reliable tool than per capita income measures for capturing improvement in human well-being
Registers potential impact of over-development
Politically appropriate – focuses on social sectors, policies and achievements
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27. Break away from the GDP dominance
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HDR 2004

28. Critiques: Composite indicators may hide more than reveal
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Critiques:
Composite indicators may hide more than reveal
Fundamental problem of weighting and aggregation
Sometimes mixing of output and input indicators: not useful as evaluation tool
No immediate uses for policy design: tailor made tools required
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29. Critiques: What about inequality? Can it capture policy changes?
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Critiques:
What about inequality?
Can it capture policy changes?
Ranking countries – unknown uncertainties
Why cap values?
Why have an index at all?
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Critiques:
What about future generations – an environmental degradation component?
Political freedoms and rights?
Culture
Nutritional status
Uncertainty
Personal security
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31. Critiques that have been incorporated
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Critiques that have been incorporated
Absolute maximum and minimum values for each indicator
Supplementing literacy with a second education indicator
Changing the adjustment of GDP per capita
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32. Political freedom Political freedom index (PFI) presented in HDR 1991
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Political freedom
Political freedom index (PFI) presented in HDR 1991
Meant to be incorporated in the HDI
Caused technical and political controversy
Ultimately dropped because of the difficulties of measurement
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33. Key data problems Literacy Conceptually and practically limited
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Key data problems
Literacy
Conceptually and practically limited
Definition and collection of literacy varies widely from country to country
Culturally specific: script systems and other factors vary across the world
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34. Key data problems GDP per capita (PPP US$)
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Key data problems
GDP per capita (PPP US$)
Based on the ICP programme, limited to some 60 countries
Based on regressions for other countries
Imperfect measure but certainly better than exchange rate terms
Life expectancy
Should measure “long and healthy life” but does not take into account health, just length
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35. Why has the HDI been successful?
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Why has the HDI been successful?
HDI has become one of the best known and most used indicators of development.
Despite some remaining controversies, broadly accepted and used by media, policymakers and academics
What factors likely contributed?
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36. Policy relevance, and acceptability
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Policy relevance, and acceptability
Underpinned by four aspects:
Conceptual clarity that facilitates its power as a tool of communication
Reasonable level of aggregation
Use of universal criteria and variables
Use of standardized international data explicitly designed for comparison
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37. 11/19/2018
Conceptual clarity
Specification of the HDI derived from a clearly defined concept:
Dimensions and variables correspond to the concepts of human development
Meaning of variables intuitively understandable
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38. Reasonable level of aggregation
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Reasonable level of aggregation
HDI focuses on a set of universally -applicable core issues
Aggregating too many issues tends to compromise analytical usefulness and policy relevance
Separate indices for e.g. gender empowerment, human poverty
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39. Universal Acceptance Universally-relevant concepts and variables
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Universal Acceptance
Universally-relevant concepts and variables
High degree of consensus that more is better in each of the variables
In contrast with e.g. election frequency, voter turnout, share of largest party
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40. 11/19/2018
Universal Acceptance
Uses data that are legitimized through the international statistical system
Of course, still data problems but data have been standardized to ensure inter-country comparability
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41. Appropriate uses of the HDI
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Appropriate uses of the HDI
Ordinal vs. cardinal – HDI value has a meaning but it is not intuitive and should be used carefully
Ranking
Example: reversals in HDI? Arguably meaningful exercise, if weights are accepted
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42. Year of Publication of Global HDR (Number of countries in parentheses)
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HDI Trend for India
Year of Publication of Global HDR
HDI Value
HDI Rank
(Number of countries in parentheses)
2005
2004
0.619 (2005)
0.595(2002)
128 (out of 177 countires)
127 (out of 177 countries)
2003
0.590 (2001)
127 (out of 175 countries)
2002
0.577 (2000)
124 (out of 173 countries)
2001
0.571(1999)
115 (out of 162 countries)
2000
0.563 (1998)
128 (out of 174 countries)
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43. HDI & GEI for India: Departures from UNDP Indices
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HDI & GEI for India: Departures from UNDP Indices
UNDP-Indicators
Attainments
NHDR-Indicators
Life Expectancy at Birth (LEB)
Longevity
Life expectancy at age 1 & IMR
Adult Literacy Rate combined with enrolment ratio
Educational attainment
Literacy rate 7+ & Intensity of formal Education
Real GDP per capita in PPP $
Economic attainment
Per capita real consumption exp. adjusted for inequality; worker-popln. ratio in case of gender equality index
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44. Human Development Index for India — Combined
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Human Development Index for India — Combined
States/UTs
1981 Value
1981 Rank
1991 Value
1991 Rank
2001 Value
2001 Rank
Andhra Pradesh
0.298 9
0.377
0.416 10
Assam
0.272
0.348
0.386 14
Bihar
0.237 15
0.308
0.367
Gujarat
0.360 4
0.431 6
0.479
Haryana 5
0.443
0.509
Karnataka
0.346
0.412 7
0.478
Kerala
0.500 1
0.591
0.638
Madhya Pradesh
0.245
0.328 13
0.394 12
Maharashtra
0.363 3
0.452
0.523
Orissa
0.267 11
0.345
0.404
Punjab
0.411 2
0.475
0.537
Rajasthan
0.256
0.347
0.424
Tamil Nadu
0.343
0.466
0.531
Uttar Pradesh
0.255
0.314
0.388
West Bengal
0.305 8
0.472
All India
0.302
0.381
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47. HDI – INDIA & MAJOR STATES 2001
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48. Constant Marginal Utility of Income
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Constant Marginal Utility of Income
Assumption: Rs 1 = 1 util at all levels
Scenario I II
III
Citizen
Income
Utility A
100
200
150 B 50
Total
Per capit
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49. Declining Marginal Utility of Income
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Declining Marginal Utility of Income
Assumption: Rs 1 = 1 util up to Rs 100
Rs 1 = (1/2) util above Rs 100
Scenario I II
III
Citizen
Income
Utility A
100
200
150
125 B 50
Total
175
Per capit 75
87.5
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50. Equivalent Incomes Total 200 Equivalent Income 150 175 Scenario I II
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Equivalent Incomes
Scenario I II
III
Total
200
Equivalent Income
150
175
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51. Engendering the HDI: GDI and GEM
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Engendering the HDI: GDI and GEM
Attempt to explore gender dimension of human development
1995: Beijing Conference and Global HDR
Gender Development Index (GDI): simple measure of inequality between men and women on components of the HDI
Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM): a positive measure of progress by women in the economic, professional and political spheres
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52. India: Adult Literacy Rate - 1991 Census
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India: Adult Literacy Rate Census
State
Male
Female
Persons
Andhra Pradesh
50.35
26.43
38.51
Bihar
50.30
18.47
35.13
Gujarat
69.25
41.62
55.88
Haryana
64.17
31.23
48.92
Karnataka
63.78
37.46
50.94
Kerala
92.65
83.64
88.00
Madhya Pradesh
55.91
22.86
40.02
Maharashtra
74.36
45.33
60.37
Orissa
61.96
29.69
46.10
Punjab
61.29
43.39
52.90
Rajasthan
52.54
16.89
35.53
Tamil Nadu
69.92
43.87
57.02
Uttar Pradesh
53.95
20.99
38.62
West Bengal
67.98
42.98
56.19
INDIA
61.89
34.09
48.54
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53. The Gender-related development Index (GDI)
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The Gender-related development Index (GDI)
Same components as the HDI
After calculating dimension index for each sex – they are combined in a way to penalize gender equality (equally distributed index)
The GDI is calculated by taking the un-weighted average of the three equally distributed indices
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54. The Gender-related development Index (GDI)
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The Gender-related development Index (GDI)
Formula for the equally distributed index:
determines the size of gender equality in a society. In the global HDR it is set at 2.
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55. Goalposts for calculating the GDI
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Minimum
Value
Maximum
value
Indicator
Life expectancy
Female years years
Male years years
Adult literacy % %
Gross enrolment % %
GDP per capita $100(US) $40,000(US)
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56. GDI-related information: Afghanistan 2005 (Step 1: Normalized scores)
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GDI-related information: Afghanistan 2005
Indicators
(Step 1: Normalized scores)
Female
Male
Share of population
0.483
0.517
Life expectancy at birth
43.0
(43.0 – 27.5)/60 =0.258
43.1
(43.1 – 22.5) / 60 = 0.343
Adult literacy rate
12.6
(12.6 – 0.0) / 100 = 0.126
32.4
(32.4 – 0.0 ) /100 = 0.324
Gross enrolment
41.8
(41.8 – 0.0 ) / 100 = 0.418
73.7
(73.7 – 0.0 ) / 100 = 0.737
Estimated earned income (per capita GDP in PPP$)
478
(log(478) – log(100)) /(log(40000 – log(100))= 0.261
1428
(log(1428) – log(100)) /(log(40000 – log(100))= 0.444
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57. GDI-computation: Nepal 2000
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GDI-computation: Nepal 2000
Step 2: Education attainment index
Female
(2/3) x (1/3) x = 0.223
Male
(2/3) x (1/3) x = 0.462
Step 3: Equally distributed indices
Life expectancy index
[0.483 x x ]-1 = 0.296
Education index
[0.483 x x ]-1 = 0.305
Income index
[0.483 x x ]-1 = 0.332
Step 4:
GDI = (1/3) x ( ) = 0.310
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58. GDI-related information: Nepal 2000 (Step 1: Normalized scores)
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GDI-related information: Nepal 2000
Indicators
(Step 1: Normalized scores)
Female
Male
Share of population
0.502
0.498
Life expectancy at birth
59.8
(59.8 – 27.5)/60 =0.538
59.3
(59.3 – 22.5) / 60 = 0.613
Adult literacy rate
35.4
(35.4 – 0.0) / 100 = 0.354
65.8
(65.8 – 0.0 ) /100 = 0.658
Mean years of schooling
2.2527
( – 0.0 ) / 15 = 0.150
4.4522
( – 0.0 ) / 15 = 0.297
Estimated earned income (per capita GDP in PPP$)
911
(log(911) – log(100)) /(log(40000 – log(100))= 0.369
1565
(log(1565) – log(100)) /(log(40000 – log(100))= 0.459
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59. GDI-computation: Nepal 2000
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GDI-computation: Nepal 2000
Step 2: Education attainment index
Female
(2/3) x (1/3) x = 0.286
Male
(2/3) x (1/3) x = 0.538
Step 3: Equally distributed indices
Life expectancy index
[0.502 x x ]-1 = 0.573
Education index
[0.502 x x ]-1 = 0.373
Income index
[0.502 x x ]-1 = 0.409
Step 4:
GDI = (1/3) x ( ) = 0.452
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62. Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM)
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Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM)
Focusing on women’s opportunities rather than capabilities, in terms of :
Political participation (% share of parliamentary seats)
Economic participation (% share as in managerial and technical positions)
Power over economic resources (estimated earned income, PPP US$)
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63. The Gender Empowerment Measure
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The Gender Empowerment Measure
While GDI shows women’s capabilities – GEM shows womens opportunities in economic and political life
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64. The Gender Empowerment Measure
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The Gender Empowerment Measure
Equally distributed equivalent percentage (EDEP) calculated for each dimension:
={[female popn. share(female index1-)] +
[male popn. share(male index1-)]}1/1-, where = 2.
The EDEP for political and economic participation indexed by dividing it by 50 assuming equal empowerment of the sexes
GEM = simple average of the 3 indexed EDEPs
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65. The Gender Empowerment Measure
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The Gender Empowerment Measure
Calculate dimension index and equally distributed equivalent percentage (EDEP) for each dimension (like GDI)
For political and economic decision making divide EDEP by 50 (the ideal share women should have)
N.B. For political and economic decision making EDEP can be calculated directly (as indicators are already %)
NB. Only have to do the dimension index for income as the others are already scaled.
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66. The Gender Empowerment Measure
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The Gender Empowerment Measure
Income is not logged in the calculation of the income index.
Again = 2, for moderate penalisation of inequality
Why is income not scaled: In GDI it represents contribution to basic human development – here it represents economic power – which does not follow a logarithmic course.
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67. GEM: Nepal 2000 Indicators Female Male Share of population 0.502 0.498
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GEM: Nepal 2000
Indicators
Female
Male
Share of population
0.502
0.498
Share of participation in local elections (%)
19.3
80.7
Share of participation in professional job (%)
19.51
80.49
Share of participation in admin. Job (%)
10.62
89.5
Estimated earned income (per capita GDP PPP$) 91
1565
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68. GEM Computation: Nepal 2000
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GEM Computation: Nepal 2000
Step 1: Compute equally distributed equivalent % (EDEP)
Political participation
Combined share (CS) = [ x (19.3) x (80.7)-1]-1 =
EDEI = / 50 = 0.621
Economic participation
CS Eco. Participation= [ x (19.51) x (80.49)-1]-1 =
EDEI = / 50 = 0.627
Combined shares of admin jobs
[ x (10.65) x (89.5)-1]-1 =
EDEI = / 50 = 0.379
EDEI for economic participation
( ) / 2 = 0.503
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69. GEM Computation: Nepal 2000 (contd.)
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GEM Computation: Nepal 2000 (contd.)
Step 1: Compute equally distributed equivalent % (EDEP)
Income
Normalized score for women’s income = ( ) / ( ) = 0.020
Normalized score for men’s income = ( ) / ( ) = 0.037
EDEI = [ x (0.020) x (0.037)-1]-1 = 0.026
Step 2: EDEI aggregation
GEM
( ) / 3 = 0.384
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Afghanistan
GEM could not be calculated for want of data: Nether NHDR 2004 nor NHDR 2007
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71. Human Poverty Index (HPI)
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Human Poverty Index (HPI)
Measures the extent of deprivation in HDI’s three dimensions
HPI –1 is calculated for developing countries
HPI-2 is calculated for industrialized countries
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72. The deprivational perspective
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The deprivational perspective
HDI and GDI focus on national averages (conglomerate aspect)
Conglomerate Perspective: Focus on advances made by all groups in the society
HPI focuses on the worst off (deprivation aspect)
Deprivation perspective: Focus on the poor and the deprived.
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73. 11/19/2018
Why separate indices
Distinguishing between developing and OECD countries recognized the relative nature of poverty
Allows the use of richer, more appropriate data
Different deprivations are more relevant in different contexts
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74. The Human Poverty Index for developing countries
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The Human Poverty Index for developing countries
(HPI-1)
Dimensions
Indicators
A long and healthy life
Knowledge
A decent standard of
living
Probability at birth of not surviving until age 40
Adult illiteracy rate
Access to safe water
Children underweight for age
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75. The Human Poverty Index (HPI-1)
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The Human Poverty Index (HPI-1)
Where:
P1=Probability at birth of not surviving to age 40 (times 100)
P2=Adult illiteracy rate
P3= Average of people without access to safe water and children underweight
As  rises greater weight is given to the dimension in which there is most deprivation. =1 implies simple average (perfect substitutability), =∞ tests HPI = highest value (no substitutability). In he global HDR =3, giving additional but not overwhelming weight to areas of most acute deprivation
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 in the HPI formula
As  rises greater weight is given to the dimension in which there is most deprivation.
=1 implies simple average (perfect substitutability),
=∞ HPI = highest value (no substitutability).
In the global HDR =3, giving additional but not overwhelming weight to areas of most acute deprivation
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77. HPI Computation: Afghanistan 2005
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HPI Computation: Afghanistan 2005
Basic information:
Probability at birth of not surviving to age 40 (%) = 41.9
Adult illiteracy rate (%) = 76.5
Chronic malnutrition among children U5 (%) = 50
Population without access to safe water (%) = 68
Step 1: Deprivation index for std. of living
= ( ) / 2 =59
Step 2: Computation of HPI
HPI
{ (1/3) ( ) }(1/3) = 62.3
19 November 2018

78. HPI Computation: Nepal 2004
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HPI Computation: Nepal 2004
Basic information:
Probability at birth of not surviving to age 40 (%) = 17.74
Adult illiteracy rate (%) = 51.4
Chronic malnutrition among children U5 (%) = 50.5
Population without access to safe water (%) = 20.48
Step 1: Deprivation index for std. of living
= ( ) / 2 =35.49
Step 2: Computation of HPI
HPI
{ (1/3) ( ) }(1/3) = 39.6
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79. 11/19/2018
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80. 11/19/2018
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81. The Human Poverty Index for OECD countries (HPI-2)
11/19/2018
Dimensions
Indicators
A long and healthy life
Knowledge
A decent standard of
living
Probability at birth of not surviving until age60
Functional illiteracy rate
Relative income poverty
Long term unemployment
19 November 2018

82. The Human Poverty Index (HPI-2)
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The Human Poverty Index (HPI-2)
Where:
P1=Probability of not surviving to age 60 (times 100)
P2=Functional illiteracy rate
P3=Relative income poverty (population below 50% median income) P4 = Long-term unemployment
As  rises greater weight is given to the dimension in which there is most deprivation. In the global HDR =3, giving additional but not overwhelming weight to areas of most acute deprivation
19 November 2018

83. Discrimination through the lens of the HDI
11/19/2018
Discrimination through the lens of the HDI
Life
expectancy
Literacy
Income
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84. 11/19/2018
Thank You
19 November 2018