1. Carbonyl Compounds + Carbohydrates and Lipids
An aldohexose
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2. Carbonyl Group in Aldehydes and Ketones
A carbonyl group,
in an aldehyde, is attached to at least one H atom
in a ketone, is attached to two carbon groups
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry

3. General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry
Carboxylic Acids
A carboxylic acid
contains a carboxyl group, which is a carbonyl group (C═O) attached to a hydroxyl group (—OH)
has the carboxyl group on carbon 1
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry

4. General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry
Esters
In an ester,
the H in the carboxyl group is replaced
with an alkyl group O 
CH3 — C—O—CH3
ester group
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5. Names of Some Typical Aldehydes
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6. Learning Check Classify each as an 1) aldehyde or 2) ketone. O O || ||
|| ||
A. CH3—CH2—C—CH B. CH3—C—H
CH O
| ||
C. CH3—C—CH2—C—H D. |
CH3
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7. Learning Check Classify each as an 1) aldehyde, 2) ketone, 3) alcohol,
or 4) ether. O ║
A. CH3─CH2─C─CH3 B. CH3─O─CH3
CH O OH
│ ║ │
C. CH3─C─CH2─C─H D. CH3─CH─CH3 │
CH3
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

8. Guide to Naming Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids
Aldehyde and carboxylic acids both at ends of a carbon chain.
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry

9. Naming Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic acids
An aldehyde has an IUPAC name in which the e in the alkane name is changed to al
O O O
║ ║ ║
H−C−H CH3−C−H CH3−CH2−C−H
Methanal Ethanal Propanal
A Ketone in the IUPAC system by replacing the e in the alkane name with one; the carbonyl carbon is indicated by a number
O O
║ ║
CH3−C−CH CH3−C−CH2−CH3
Propanone Butanone
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10. Example of Writing IUPAC Names for Carboxylic Acids
To write the IUPAC names of a carboxylic acid STEP 1 Replace the e in the alkane name with oic acid. CH4 Methane HCOOH Methanoic acid CH3—CH3 Ethane CH3—COOH Ethanoic acid STEP 2 Locate and name substituents, counting from the carboxyl carbon as carbon 1
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

11. Learning Check Name each of the following: O ║ 1. CH3─CH2─CH2─CH2─C─H
2. Cl─CH2─CH2─C─H
3. CH3─CH2─C─CH3
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12. Learning Check Draw the condensed structural formulas for each of the
following:
A. 4-Methylpentanal
B. 2,3-Dichloropropanal
3-Methyl-2-butanone
3-Methylbutanoic acid
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13. Polar Carbonyl Group
The polar carbonyl group of aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids provides dipole–dipole interactions
+  + -
C═O C═O
does not have H on the oxygen atom, aldehydes and ketones cannot be hydrogen bond donors, only acceptors
Carboxylic acids
are strongly polar
have two polar groups:
hydroxyl (−OH) and carbonyl (C═O)
Both Hydrogen bond donor and aceptor
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14. General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry
Carbonyl compounds have higher boiling points and more soluble than alkanes
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry

15. Aldehydes Can Be Oxidized to Carboxylic acids, Ketones Cannot
Aldehydes are easily oxidized to carboxylic acids.
O O
|| [O] ||
CH3—C—H CH3—C—OH
Acetaldehyde Acetic acid
[O] = Ag+ or Cu2+
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16. Aldehydes and Ketones Can Undergo Addition Reactions
When a polar molecule adds to the carbonyl group
of an aldehyde or ketone,
the negative part of the added molecule bonds to the positive carbonyl carbon
the positive part of the added molecule bonds to the negative carbonyl oxygen
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

17. General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry
Cyclic Hemiacetals
In glucose, a cyclic hemiacetal between the C═O group and the —OH forms a stable, six-atom ring
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry

18. General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry
Carbohydrates
a major source of energy from our diet
composed of the elements C, H and O
also called saccharides, which means “sugars”
are produced by photosynthesis in plants
such as glucose are synthesized in plants from CO2, H2O, and energy from the sun
are oxidized in living cells (respiration) to produce CO2, H2O, and energy
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry

19. Types of Carbohydrates
The types of carbohydrates are
monosaccharides, the simplest carbohydrates
disaccharides, which consist of two monosaccharides
polysaccharides, which contain many monosaccharides
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20. Monosaccharides 3 to 6 carbon atoms (typically)
a carbonyl (C=O) group – aldehyde (aldose) or ketone (ketose)
several hydroxyl groups (-OH)
end in -ose
may include the number of carbons in the molecule:
triose (3 C atoms)
tetrose (4 C atoms)
pentose (5 C atoms)
hexose (6 C atoms)
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21. Monosaccharides Aldoses vs Ketoses
Aldoses have an aldehyde group Ketoses have a ketone group Carbonyl at C Carbonyl at C2
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22. Examples of Monosaccharides
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23. Learning Check
Identify each as aldo- or keto- and as tetrose, pentose or hexose.
A B.
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24. Solution
Identify each as aldo- or keto- and as tetrose, pentose or hexose: A. B. aldohexose ketopentose
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25. Fischer Projections a 2-dimensional representation of a molecule
places the most oxidized group at the top
uses vertical lines for bonds that go back
uses horizontal lines for bonds that go forward
L structures
—OH on left (second to last carbon)
D structures
—OH on the right (second to last carbon)
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26. D and L Notations
L -
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27. Learning Check Identify each as the D or L isomer. A. B. C.
__-Ribose __-Threose __-Fructose
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28. D-Glucose, D-Fructose, D-Galactose
an aldohexose with the formula C6H12O6
In fruits and honey
blood sugar in the body
glucose has a normal blood level of 70–90 mg/dL
the monosaccharide in polymers of starch, cellulose, and glycogen
D-Fructose
is a ketohexose with the formula C6H12O6
Is converted to glucose in the body
D-Galactose
In the dissaccaride, lactose, milk sugar
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry

29. Haworth Structures are cyclic forms of monosaccharides
of hexoses form when the second to last —OH on reacts with a C═O group
Aldohexoses form 6 member rings
Ketohexoses and aldopentoses form 5 member rings
b-D-Ribose
An aldohexose
A ketohexose
An aldopentose
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

30. Important Disaccharides
A disaccharide
consists of two monosaccharides
Monosaccharides Disaccharide
Glucose + glucose maltose + H2O
Glucose + galactose lactose + H2O
Glucose + fructose sucrose + H2O
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

31. Polysaccharides Known as complex carbohydrates
are polymers of D-glucose
include amylose and amylopectin, starches made of -D-glucose
include glycogen (animal starch in muscle and liver), which is made of -D-glucose
include cellulose (plants and wood), which is made of -D-glucose
General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

32. Lipids biomolecules that contain fatty acids or a steroid nucleus
soluble in organic solvents but not in water
named for the Greek word lipos, which means “fat”
extracted from cells using organic solvents
Triglycerides made of 3 fatty acids 32 32

33. Fatty Acids Fatty acids are long-chain carboxylic acids
typically contain 12 to 18 carbon atoms
are insoluble in water
can be saturated or unsaturated 33 33

34. Fatty Acid Formulas The formulas for fatty acids are written as
condensed structural formulas
line-bond formulas 34 34

35. Saturated Fatty Acids Saturated fatty acids have single C—C bonds
molecules that fit closely together in a regular pattern
strong attractions between fatty acid chains
high melting points that make them solids at room temperature
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36. Unsaturated Fatty Acids
one or more double C═C bond
typically contain cis double bonds
“kinks” in the fatty acid chains
fewer attractions between chains and do not pack closely
lower melting points
are liquids at room temperature
Trans-fats made of these
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37. Structure and Polarity of a Glycerophospholipid
Note the “kink”
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38. Cell Membranes Cell membranes
consist of a lipid bilayer made of two rows of phospholipids
have an inner portion made of the nonpolar tails of phospholipids with the polar heads at the outer and inner surfaces 38 38