1. LEARNING

2. Definition
“The term learning covers every modification in behavior to meet environmental requirements”.
(Gardner Murphy, 1968)
Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or the strengthening or weakening of old behavior as the result of experience.
(Henry P Smith, 1962)
Learning can be defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior which occurs as a result of practice or experience.

3. Learning is a change in behavior- change- better or worse
It’s a change that take place through practice or experience; changes due to growth and maturation are not learning.
The change must be relatively permanent, it must last for a fairly long period.

4. Characteristics Process Experience and training
Bring changes in the behavior
Prepares an individual for necessary adjustment and adaptation.
Goal- oriented
Universal and continuous

5. Types of Learning Verbal learning-acquisition of verbal behavior
Motor learning-motor skills
Concept learning- mental image.
Problem solving- higher learning; reasoning, thinking, power of observation, discrimination, generalization, imagination, ability to infer and draw conclusions etc.
Serial learning- alphabet, numbers, tables etc.
Paired- associate learning- based on the association.

6. CONDITIONING It’s a form of associative learning.
Two types of conditioning
- Classical/pavlovian conditioning.
- Instrumental/operant
conditioning.

7. Classical Conditioning
Ivan P Pavlov (1927)
Components of classical conditioning
1.The unconditional stimulus (UCS)- unconditioned means that the stimulus in question need not require prior training to produce the desired response.
2. The unconditional response (UCR)-
-It is the response that elicited by the UCS.
-UCS reliably elicits the UCR
- UCR is often referred to as a highly reflexive response, one which happens quickly and quite automatically when the UCS occurs.

8. 3. The conditioned stimulus (CS)
The CS is that stimulus which comes to elicit a response by being paired properly in time with the UCS (Bell).
4. The Conditioned Response (CR)
The CR is learned reflex which arises when the CS is paired properly in time with the UCS. The CR is referred to as a conditioned reflex for it becomes conditional upon the presentation of the CS.
Learning is a habit formation and based on the principle of association and substitution.

9. Principles of Conditioning
1.Extinction- The process related with the gradual disappearance of the conditioned response on connecting the S-R association is called extinction.
If conditioned stimulus present alone- decrease the CR and disappear
2.Spontaneous Recovery- after extinction reappearance of CR spontaneously but pairing of CS and US

10. Cont…
3.Stimulus Generalization- Pavlov’s dog provided response (salivation) not at the sight of the food but to every stimulus like ringing of the bell, appearance of light, sound of the foot steps of the feeder etc. associated with its getting of the food.
Stimulus Discrimination- Stimulus discrimination is the opposite of stimulus generalization
Sharp contrast to response in a usual fashion the subject learns to react differently in different situation.

11. Cont..
This may help us learning to react only to a single specific stimulus out of the multiplicity of stimuli and enabling us to distinguish and discriminate among a variety of stimuli present in our environment.

12. Application of Classical Conditioning
Fear, Love and Hatred towards an object phenomenon or environment are created through classical conditioning.
Example: If a father punishing continuously
Teachers misbehavior and improper teaching may leads to distaste towards the subject

13. OPERANT(INSTRUMENTAL) CONDITIONING
BF Skinner
Basis of operant conditioning is trial and error theory of Thorndike
Operant is a set of acts which constitutes an organism’s doing something. Ex: raising head, walking etc.
Operant conditioning refers to a kind of learning process whereby a response is made more probable or more frequent by reinforcement.

14. Reinforcer and Reinforcement
Reinforcement is an identical to the presentation of reward.
Reinforcer is the stimulus whose presentation or removal increase the probability of a response re-occuring.
Reinforcement
1.Positive- presentation
2.Negative – removal/withdraw
Both are leads to favorable consequence

15. Schedules of Reinforcement
1.Continuous reinforcement schedule
2.Fixed interval reinforcement schedule
3.Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule
4.Variable reinforcement schedule
Reinforcement and its schedule play a key role in the conditioning or operant behavior and acquisition of learning

16. Cont…
Continuous reinforcement schedule increase the response rate, thus least resistance to extinction and lowest response rate during learning.
Escape Learning- an organism acquires a response that decrease or ends some aversive stimulation
Avoidance Learning- an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring.
Two- process theory of avoidance given by Mowrer.

17. Mechanism of operant conditioning
Punishment
It occurs when an event following a response decrease the tendency to make that response
Presentation of aversive stimulus-weakening response.
Mechanism of operant conditioning
Once a response occurs, its reinforced through a suitable reinforcer
In due course response gets conditioned by constantly reinforcing.
Shaping

18. Implication of the operant conditioning
Behavior modification
Development of human personality.
Development of teaching and programmed learning.

19. Trial and Error Learning
Edward L Thorndike ( )
Experiment on hunger cat in a puzzle box and its components are:
1.Drive- hunger which was intensified with the sight of food.
2.Goal- to get the food by getting out of the box
3.Block- the cat was confined in the box with a closed door.

20. Cont..
4.Chance success- as a result of this striving and random movement the cat by chance succeeded in opening the door.
5.Selection- gradually the recognized the correct manipulation of latch.
6.Fixation- the cat learned the proper way of opening the door by eliminating all the incorrect response and fixing only the right response

21. Laws of Learning
Law of Readiness: Readiness is preparation for action. If the child is ready to learn, he learns more quickly, effectively and with greater satisfaction than if he is unwilling to learn.
It warns us not make the child learn till he is ready to learn and also not to miss any opportunity of providing learning experience if the child is already prepared to learn.
State of mind should be very well and organized and maximum use of this knowledge should be made by the teacher.

22. 2.Law of effect
The learning takes place properly when it results in satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure out of it.
In a situation where the child meets with failure or gets no satisfaction, the progress on the path of learning is blocked.
All the pleasant experience have a lasting influence and are remembered for a long time, while the unpleasant ones are soon forgotten.
Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction leads to effectiveness of learning

23. 4.Law of multiple response
3. Law of exercise
Law of use- strengthening of connection with practice.
Law of disuse- weakening
4.Law of multiple response
When individual is confronted with a new situation he responds in a variety of ways before arriving at the correct response

24. 7. Law of associative shifting
5. Law of attitude
The learner performs the task properly if he/she has developed healthy attitude/
6.Law of analogy
An individual responds new situation on the basis of the responses made by him in similar situation
7. Law of associative shifting
Any response which is possible can be linked with any stimulus

25. Theory of Insightful Learning
Wolfgang Kohler- gestalt psychologist
The process of learning as a gestalt- an organized whole. A thing cannot be understood by study of its constituent parts but only by study of it as a totality is the basic idea behind this theory.
Learning as a purposive, exploratory and creative enterprise
Gestalt psychology used the term “insight” to describe the perception of the whole situation by the learner and his/her intelligence in responding to the proper relationship

26. Cont.. Chimpanzee experiment
Insightful learning- sudden “aha” or bolt of lightening. Its bound to depend upon the factors given below
Experience
Intelligence
Learning situation
Initial efforts
Repetition and Generalisation

27. Transfer of Learning
The carry over of habits of thinking, feeling or working of knowledge or skills from one learning area to another usually is referred to as the transfer of learning (Crow & Crow, 1973)
Transfer refers to the transfer of knowledge, training, and habits acquired in one situation to another situation.

28. Types of transfer
Positive Transfer- when something previously learned benefits performance or learning in a new situation
Negative Transfer- when something previously learned hinders performance or learning in a new situation.
Zero Transfer- previous learning makes no difference at all to the performance or learning in a new situation.