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V: The Trigeminal Nerves
Largest cranial nerves; fibers extend from pons to face Three divisions Ophthalmic (V1) passes through the superior orbital fissure Maxillary (V2) passes through the foramen rotundum Mandibular (V3) passes through the foramen ovale Convey sensory impulses from various areas of the face (V1) and (V2), and supplies motor fibers (V3) for mastication
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Table 13.2
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Table 13.2
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VI: The Abducens Nerves
Fibers from the inferior pons enter the orbits via the superior orbital fissures Primarily a motor, innervating the lateral rectus muscle
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Table 13.2
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VII: The Facial Nerves Fibers from the pons travel through the internal acoustic meatuses, and emerge through the stylomastoid foramina to the lateral aspect of the face Chief motor nerves of the face with 5 major branches Motor functions include facial expression, parasympathetic impulses to lacrimal and salivary glands Sensory function (taste) from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue
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Table 13.2
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Table 13.2
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VIII: The Vestibulocochlear Nerves
Afferent fibers from the hearing receptors (cochlear division) and equilibrium receptors (vestibular division) pass from the inner ear through the internal acoustic meatuses, and enter the brain stem at the pons-medulla border Mostly sensory function; small motor component for adjustment of sensitivity of receptors
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Table 13.2
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IX: The Glossopharyngeal Nerves
Fibers from the medulla leave the skull via the jugular foramen and run to the throat Motor functions: innervate part of the tongue and pharynx for swallowing, and provide parasympathetic fibers to the parotid salivary glands Sensory functions: fibers conduct taste and general sensory impulses from the pharynx and posterior tongue, and impulses from carotid chemoreceptors and baroreceptors
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Table 13.2
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X: The Vagus Nerves The only cranial nerves that extend beyond the head and neck region Fibers from the medulla exit the skull via the jugular foramen Most motor fibers are parasympathetic fibers that help regulate the activities of the heart, lungs, and abdominal viscera Sensory fibers carry impulses from thoracic and abdominal viscera, baroreceptors, chemoreceptors, and taste buds of posterior tongue and pharynx
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Table 13.2
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XI: The Accessory Nerves
Formed from ventral rootlets from the C1–C5 region of the spinal cord (not the brain) Rootlets pass into the cranium via each foramen magnum Accessory nerves exit the skull via the jugular foramina to innervate the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles
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Table 13.2
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XII: The Hypoglossal Nerves
Fibers from the medulla exit the skull via the hypoglossal canal Innervate extrinsic and intrinsic muscles of the tongue that contribute to swallowing and speech
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Table 13.2
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Spinal Nerves 31 pairs of mixed nerves named according to their point of issue from the spinal cord 8 cervical (C1–C8) 12 thoracic (T1–T12) 5 Lumbar (L1–L5) 5 Sacral (S1–S5) 1 Coccygeal (C0)
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Cervical plexus Cervical nerves C1 – C8 Brachial plexus Cervical
enlargement Thoracic nerves T1 – T12 Intercostal nerves Lumbar enlargement Lumbar nerves L1 – L5 Lumbar plexus Sacral plexus Sacral nerves S1 – S5 Cauda equina Coccygeal nerve Co1 Figure 13.6
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Each spinal nerve connects to the spinal cord via two roots
Spinal Nerves: Roots Each spinal nerve connects to the spinal cord via two roots Ventral roots Contain motor (efferent) fibers from the ventral horn motor neurons Fibers innervate skeletal muscles)
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Spinal Nerves: Roots Dorsal roots
Contain sensory (afferent) fibers from sensory neurons in the dorsal root ganglia Conduct impulses from peripheral receptors Dorsal and ventral roots unite to form spinal nerves, which then emerge from the vertebral column via the intervertebral foramina
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Gray matter White matter Dorsal and Ventral root ventral rootlets
of spinal nerve Ventral root Dorsal root Dorsal root ganglion Dorsal ramus of spinal nerve Ventral ramus of spinal nerve Spinal nerve Rami communicantes Sympathetic trunk ganglion Anterior view showing spinal cord, associated nerves, and vertebrae. The dorsal and ventral roots arise medially as rootlets and join laterally to form the spinal nerve. Figure 13.7 (a)
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Each spinal nerve branches into mixed rami
Spinal Nerves: Rami Each spinal nerve branches into mixed rami Dorsal ramus Larger ventral ramus Meningeal branch Rami communicantes (autonomic pathways) join to the ventral rami in the thoracic region
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Spinal Nerves: Rami All ventral rami except T2–T12 form interlacing nerve networks called plexuses (cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral) The back is innervated by dorsal rami via several branches Ventral rami of T2–T12 as intercostal nerves supply muscles of the ribs, anterolateral thorax, and abdominal wall
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Branches of intercostal nerve
Dorsal ramus Ventral ramus Spinal nerve Rami communicantes Intercostal nerve Sympathetic trunk ganglion Dorsal root ganglion Dorsal root Ventral root Branches of intercostal nerve • Lateral cutaneous • Anterior cutaneous Sternum (b) Cross section of thorax showing the main roots and branches of a spinal nerve. Figure 13.7 (b)
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Formed by ventral rami of C1–C4
Cervical Plexus Formed by ventral rami of C1–C4 Innervates skin and muscles of the neck, ear, back of head, and shoulders Phrenic nerve Major motor and sensory nerve of the diaphragm (receives fibers from C3–C5)
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Segmental branches Hypoglossal Ventral nerve (XII) rami:
Ventral rami Segmental branches Hypoglossal nerve (XII) Ventral rami: Lesser occipital nerve C1 Greater auricular nerve C2 Transverse cervical nerve C3 Ansa cervicalis C4 Accessory nerve (XI) Phrenic nerve C5 Supraclavicular nerves Figure 13.8
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Table 13.3
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Brachial Plexus Formed by ventral rami of C5–C8 and T1 (and often C4 and T2) It gives rise to the nerves that innervate the upper limb Major branches of this plexus: Roots—five ventral rami (C5–T1) Trunks—upper, middle, and lower Divisions—anterior and posterior Cords—lateral, medial, and posterior
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(a) Roots (rami C5 – T1), trunks, divisions, and cords
Roots (ventral rami): C4 Dorsal scapular C5 Nerve to subclavius C6 Suprascapular Upper Posterior divisions C7 Middle Trunks Lateral C8 Lower Cords Posterior T1 Long thoracic Medial Medial pectoral Lateral pectoral Axillary Upper subscapular Musculo- cutaneous Lower subscapular Thoracodorsal Radial Medial cutaneous nerves of the arm and forearm Median Ulnar (a) Roots (rami C5 – T1), trunks, divisions, and cords Anterior divisions Posterior divisions Trunks Roots Figure 13.9 (a)
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(d) Flowchart summarizing relationships within the brachial plexus
Anterior divisions Posterior divisions Trunks Roots Major terminal branches (peripheral nerves) Roots (ventral rami) Cords Divisions Trunks Anterior Musculocutaneous Upper C5 Lateral Posterior Median C6 Medial Anterior Ulnar Middle C7 Posterior Radial C8 Posterior Anterior Axillary Lower T1 Posterior (d) Flowchart summarizing relationships within the brachial plexus Figure 13.9 (d)
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Brachial Plexus: Nerves
Axillary—innervates the deltoid, teres minor, and skin and joint capsule of the shoulder Musculocutaneous—innervates the biceps brachii and brachialis and skin of lateral forearm Median—innervates the skin, most flexors and pronators in the forearm, and some intrinsic muscles of the hand Ulnar—supplies the flexor carpi ulnaris, part of the flexor digitorum profundus, most intrinsic muscles of the hand, and skin of medial aspect of hand Radial—innervates essentially all extensor muscles, supinators, and posterior skin of limb
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Musculocutaneous nerve Ulna Radius Ulnar nerve Median nerve
Axillary nerve Anterior divisions Posterior divisions Trunks Roots Humerus Radial nerve Musculocutaneous nerve Ulna Radius Ulnar nerve Median nerve Radial nerve (superficial branch) Dorsal branch of ulnar nerve Superficial branch of ulnar nerve Digital branch of ulnar nerve Muscular branch Median nerve Digital branch (c) The major nerves of the upper limb Figure 13.9 (c)
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Table 13.4
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Lumbar Plexus Arises from L1–L4 Innervates the thigh, abdominal wall, and psoas muscle Femoral nerve—innervates quadriceps and skin of anterior thigh and medial surface of leg Obturator nerve—passes through obturator foramen to innervate adductor muscles
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Ventral rami: Iliohypogastric L1 Ilioinguinal Femoral L2
Lateral femoral cutaneous Iliohypogastric Ilioinguinal Obturator L3 Genitofemoral Anterior femoral cutaneous Lateral femoral cutaneous Saphenous L4 Obturator Femoral L5 Lumbosacral trunk (a) Ventral rami and major branches of the lumbar plexus (b) Distribution of the major nerves from the lumbar plexus to the lower limb Figure 13.10
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Table 13.5
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Sacral Plexus Arises from L4–S4
Serves the buttock, lower limb, pelvic structures, and perineum Sciatic nerve Longest and thickest nerve of the body Innervates the hamstring muscles, adductor magnus, and most muscles in the leg and foot Composed of two nerves: tibial and common fibular
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Ventral rami and major branches of the sacral plexus
Superior gluteal L5 Lumbosacral trunk S1 Inferior gluteal Common fibular S2 Tibial S3 Posterior femoral cutaneous S4 Pudendal S5 Sciatic Co1 Ventral rami and major branches of the sacral plexus Figure (a)
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(b) Distribution of the major nerves from
Superior gluteal Inferior gluteal Pudendal Sciatic Posterior femoral cutaneous Common fibular Tibial Sural (cut) Deep fibular Superficial fibular Plantar branches (b) Distribution of the major nerves from the sacral plexus to the lower limb Figure (b)
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Table 13.6
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Innervation of Skin Dermatome: the area of skin innervated by the cutaneous branches of a single spinal nerve All spinal nerves except C1 participate in dermatomes Most dermatomes overlap, so destruction of a single spinal nerve will not cause complete numbness
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Anterior view (b) Posterior view Figure 13.12 C2 C3 C4 C5 T1 T2 T3 T2
L2 S1 L1 L3 C8 L4 S2 T12 S3 L5 C6 L1 L1 C6 S4 C7 S2 C7 S5 C8 S3 C8 L2 L2 S1 S2 S2 S1 L3 L3 L1 L5 L2 L5 L4 L4 L3 L5 L5 L4 S1 S1 Anterior view (b) Posterior view L4 L4 L5 L5 S1 Figure 13.12
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Innervation of Joints Hilton’s law: Any nerve serving a muscle that produces movement at a joint also innervates the joint and the skin over the joint
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