1. 12: The Presidency
Leading the Nation

2. Foundations of the Modern Presidency
Article II of the Constitution:
Broadly worded discussion of presidential power
President’s constitutional power has expanded over time
War powers
Foreign policy initiatives
“Executive power”
Use of the veto in a legislative role versus a constitutional one

3. Table 12-1 The Constitutional Authority for the President’s Major Roles
Commander in chief
Article II, Section 2: “The President shall be commander in chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states.”
Chief executive
Article II, Section 2: “He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to appoint judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law.”
Article II, Section 3: “He shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States.”
Chief diplomat
Article II, Section 2: “He shall have power, and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators present concur.”
Article II, Section 2: “He shall by and the consent of the Senate appoint ambassadors [and] other public ministers and consuls . . .”
Article II, Section 3: “He shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers.”
Legislative leader
Article II, Section 3: “He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient. (Article I, Section 7, which defines the president’s veto power, is also part of his legislative authority.)

4. The Changing Conception of the Presidency
Two features of the office have enabled presidents to claim national policy leadership
National election
Singular authority
Whig theory: presidency is a limited office charged with carrying out the will of Congress
Stewardship theory: calls for a strong presidency that is limited only by what the Constitution prohibits
Theodore Roosevelt

5. The Need for a Strong Presidency
Federal government’s increased policy responsibilities have made the presidency an inherently strong office
Domestic policy leadership
President is uniquely positioned to lead policy initiatives
Foreign policy leadership
Changes wrought by World War II
Singleness of purpose and fast action

6. Figure 12-1 Authorization for War
Since World War II, the great majority of U.S. military engagements have been fought solely on the basis of the president’s authority as commander in chief of the armed forces.
Source: Compiled by author from U.S. Department of Defense documents.

7. Choosing the President
As the president’s responsibilities have changed, so has the election process
Founders feared a president that was too powerful
Indirect election: the Electoral College
Public’s role has become more direct
Open party caucuses: meetings, open to any registered party voter, used to nominate a presidential candidate

8. Table 12-2 The Four Systems of Presidential Selection
Selection System
Period
Features
Original
1788–1828
Party nominees are chosen in congressional caucuses.
Electoral College members act somewhat independently in their presidential voting.
Party convention
1832–1900
Party nominees are chosen in national
party conventions by delegates selected by
state and local party organizations.
Electoral College members cast their
ballots for the popular-vote winner in their respective states.
Party convention, primary
1904–1968
As in system 2, except that a minority of national convention delegates are chosen through primary elections (the majority still being chosen by party organizations).
Party Primary, open caucus
1972–present
As in system 2, except that a majority of national convention delegates are chosen through primary elections.

9. The Nominating Campaign: Primaries and Caucuses
Currently voters choose the presidential nominees through electing delegates to national party conventions
Invisible primary: the year leading to the first caucus
Primaries (New Hampshire first)
Caucuses (Iowa first)
One key to success is momentum—a strong showing in early contests that contributes to ongoing support
Money then becomes a critical factor

10. The National Party Conventions
Party convention formally selects the presidential candidates
Presidential candidate selects the vice presidential candidate
Party decides on a platform
Party attempts to heal wounds and divisions from the nominating campaign
Party presents its candidate to the voters

11. The General Election Campaign
Nominees begin with a reservoir of partisan and partisan-leaning votes
In the electoral college, a majority is 270 or more
Unit rule: most states cast all votes for one candidate
Focus is on battleground states
Media-centered campaign is expensive
Internet fundraising has gained importance
Constitutional requirements: a president must be at least 35 years old; a natural-born citizen; and a U.S. resident for at least 14 years

12. The Unit Rule and Electoral Vote Strategy
With two exceptions (Maine and Nebraska), the states give all their electoral votes to the popular-vote winner in the state—the so-called unit rule. This leads to a focus on competitive states that could conceivably be won by either party. The states in this map were categorized by the Cook Report in 2016.
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13. Table 12-3 The Path to the White House
President
In Office
Highest Previous Office
Second Highest Office
Theodore Roosevelt
1901–1908
Vice president*
Governor
William Howard Taft
1909–1912
Secretary of war
Federal judge
Woodrow Wilson
1913–1920
None
Warren G. Harding
1921–1924
U.S. senator
Lieutenant governor
Calvin Coolidge
1925–1928
Herbert Hoover
1929–1932
Secretary of commerce
War relief administrator
Franklin D. Roosevelt
1933–1945
Asst. secretary of navy
Harry S. Truman
1945–1952
Dwight D. Eisenhower
1953–1960
None (army general)
John F. Kennedy
1961–1963
U.S. representative
Lyndon Johnson
1963–1968
Richard Nixon
1969–1974
Vice president
Gerald Ford
1974–1976
Jimmy Carter
1977–1980
State senator
Ronald Reagan
1981–1988
George H. W. Bush
1989–1992
Director, CIA
Bill Clinton
1993–2000
State attorney general
George W. Bush
2001–2008
Barack Obama
2009–2016
Donald Trump
2017–
* Became president on death or resignation of incumbent

14. Staffing the Presidency
Presidential appointees
Cabinet secretaries; attorney general, FBI director, etc.
Hundreds of other federal executives
Each is an extension of the president’s authority
Typically they are party loyalists

15. The Vice President Separate elective office, but part of the team
Office has no constitutional authority other than as presiding officer in the Senate
Duties are determined by the president
Past presidents typically ignored their vice presidents
President Carter redefined the office

16. The Executive Office of the President
White House Office (WHO)
Communications Office
Office of the Press Secretary
Office of Legislative Affairs
Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
National Security Council
National Economic Council

17. The Cabinet and Agency Appointees
President’s cabinet are the heads of the 15 executive departments
Appointed by the president, confirmed by the Senate
Cabinet is no longer used as an advisory body
Other presidential appointments
More than 2,000 full-time presidential appointees
Heads and top deputies of federal agencies and commissions
Nearly 200 ambassadors
About half of appointees require Senate confirmation

18. The Problem of Control
Large number of appointees poses a control problem for the president
Do not always act in ways that serve the president’s interest
Most severe problem is with appointees working in departments/agencies not within the White House
Loyalty is sometimes split between the president and their own agendas
Lower-level appointees are a particular problem because they are rarely seen by the president, and many are new to politics

19. Factors in Presidential Leadership
Strong presidents have typically had a clear sense of where the country should be headed and of how to communicate that vision
Typified by Ronald Reagan
Presidential success is also dependent upon:
Congressional approval
Bureaucratic support
Judicial acceptance

20. The Force of Circumstance
Special circumstances foster presidential power
Decisive election victory; a compelling national problem; and a president who knew what was expected and pursued appropriate policies
Great Depression: FDR
Presidential assassination, civil rights movement: LBJ
Economic trouble, high unemployment: Ronald Reagan
Popular impression that presidents unilaterally decide national policy is incorrect

21. The Stage of the President’s Term
Honeymoon period following election
Congress, press, and the people are more predisposed to support the new president’s initiatives
More new programs are proposed in a president’s first year in office than in any subsequent year
Decreased success over time
Fewer new ideas or political resources
Momentum of election is gone
Sources of opposition emerge

22. The Nature of the Issue: Foreign or Domestic
Presidents have greater power in foreign policy
More autonomy in foreign policy actions
Executive agreement
Use of military force
Relationship with executive agencies
Congress at times defers to the president in order to maintain America’s credibility abroad
Congress has greater control over domestic policy

23. Figure 12-2 Formal Agreements with Other Nations
In the past eight decades, presidents have signed over 17,000 executive agreements with other countries—more than 15 times the number of treaties ratified by the Senate during the same period. Treaties require a two-thirds vote of Senate for ratification. Executive agreements require only the signature of the president.
Source: U.S. Department of State. Figure based on the 1939–2013 period.

24. Relations with Congress
President has an unrivaled ability to set the national agenda
Congress may take action or not, but they will take notice
In seeking cooperation, presidents rely on their power of persuasion—and the threat of a veto
Partisan support in Congress is often key
Unified versus divided government
Congress can take steps to curb presidential power
Impeachment
War Powers Act

25. Figure 12-3 Presidents’ Legislative Success
Presidents can endorse legislation but it takes Congress to enact it. Although presidents have had considerable success in getting congressional support for bills they backed, they have fared much better when their party controlled Congress than when one or both congressional chambers were controlled by the other party.
Source: Calculated by author from Congressional Quarterly reports from 1952 to 2015.

26. Public Support
Presidential approval ratings typically decrease after the honeymoon period
Events and issues influence the public’s approval
State of the economy
Foreign crises
One advantage the president has is access to the media, particularly television
Can count on free airtime
Twice as much news coverage than Congress
Presidents may bypass Congress by “going public” with their policies

27. Invasion of Iraq
In garnering support for the invasion of 2003, President George W. Bush was able to use the news media to carry his message. Reporters were focused so intently on the White House that administration sources were quoted roughly 10 times as often as were the war’s congressional opponents. By the time of the invasion, 76 percent of respondents in a Gallup poll expressed approval. Note: The numbers featured in the figure are based on ABC, CBS, and NBC coverage, August 1, 2002 to March 19, 2003.
Source: Estimated from Danny Hayes and Matt Guardino, “Whose Views Made News?” Political Communication 27 (2010), 73.

28. Table 12-4 Percentage of Public Expressing Approval of President’s Performance
Years in Office
Average during Presidency (%)
First-Year Average (%)
Final-Year Average (%)
Harry S Truman
1945–1952 41 63 35
Dwight D. Eisenhower
1953–1960 64 74 62
John F. Kennedy
1961–1963 70 76
Lyndon Johnson
1963–1968 55 78 40
Richard Nixon
1969–1974 49 24
Gerald Ford
1974–1976 46 75 48
Jimmy Carter
1977–1980 47 68
Ronald Reagan
1981–1988 53 58 57
George H. W. Bush
1989–1992 61 65
Bill Clinton
1993–2000 50 60
George W. Bush
2001–2008 51 33
Barack Obama
2009–2016
Source: Averages compiled from Gallup polls.

29. The Illusion of Presidential Government
Presidents must counter negative press portrayals
Attempt to put a good spin on developments
Public relations cannot disguise adverse developments
Public’s expectations are high
Too much credit when things go well
Too much blame when they don’t
Presidential power rests on a popular base
Erodes when public support declines

30. President of All the People, or Only Those from the Same Party?
Democrats are more likely to approve of the performance of a Democratic president and disapprove of that of a Republican president, while the reverse is true of Republicans. That gap has widened significantly in recent years.

31. Critical Thinking
Define the Whig theory of the presidency and the stewardship theory. How did the increase in the federal government’s policy responsibilities and the expanded role of the United States in world affairs contribute to the emergence of the powerful presidency suggested by the stewardship theory?
Contrast the pre-1972 methods of selecting presidential nominees with the post-1972 method, noting particularly the public’s increased role in the selection process.
Why is presidential power “conditional”—that is, why is it affected so substantially by circumstance, the nature of the issue, the makeup of Congress, and popular support? (The separation of powers should be part of your answer.)

32. Long image descriptions
Appendix A

33. The Unit Rule and Electoral Vote Strategy Appendix
Likely Republican states in 2016, with the number of electoral votes for each, were Alabama (9), Alaska (3), Arizona (11), Arkansas (6), Georgia (16), Idaho (4), Indiana (11), Kansas (6), Kentucky (8), Louisiana (8), Mississippi (6), Missouri (10), Montana (3), Nebraska (5), North Dakota (3), Oklahoma (7), South Carolina (9), South Dakota (3), Tennessee (11), Texas (38), Utah (6), West Virginia (5), and Wyoming (3).
Likely Democratic states included California (55), Connecticut (7), Delaware (3), Hawaii (4), Illinois (20), Maryland (10), Massachusetts (11), New Jersey (14), New York (29), Oregon (7), Rhode Island (4), Vermont (3), and Washington (12), along with the District of Columbia (3).
The potential battleground states were Colorado (9), Florida (29), Iowa (6), Maine (4), Michigan (16), Minnesota (10), Nevada (6), New Hampshire (4), New Mexico (5), North Carolina (15), Ohio (18), Pennsylvania (20), Virginia (13), and Wisconsin (10).
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