1. The Human Species
HUMAN EVOLUTION - the process by which human beings developed on Earth from now-extinct primates.

2. Evolution
Evolution refers to change over time, or transformation over time.
Evolution assumes that all natural forms arose from their ancestors and adapted over time to their environments.
There are numerous ways in which evolution occurs, the most noted are Natural Selection and Adaptation.

3. Early Research
Carolus Linnaeus – developed a system of classification know as “taxonomy” – the modern system for classifying plants & animals that reflect natural relationships (ie. Mammals, Reptiles)
Joseph Banks – sailed with James Cook and collected previously unknown plants & animals; used Linnaeus’ taxonomy for classification
Gregor Mendel – a botanist, considered the founder of modern genetics, concluded that characteristics are passed down from generation to generation

4. Early Research con’t Jean Baptiste de Lamarck – a zoologist, developed
a number of theories on how animals species develop over time; from simple forms into more complex (ie. Giraffes and long necks for food)
Charles Darwin ( ) – the one everyone knows for the theory of evolution; gradual change over generations and survival of the fittest (natural selection) - when his works were first published they created a huge controversy “is it from your mother’s side or your father’s side that you are descended from apes”

5. Charles darwin - Evolutionism
Darwin's Theory of Evolution - all life is related and has descended from a common ancestor: the birds and the bananas, the fishes and the flowers -- all related.
In a nutshell, as random genetic mutations occur within an organism's genetic code, the beneficial mutations are preserved because they aid survival -- a process known as "natural selection." These beneficial mutations are passed on to the next generation. Over time, beneficial mutations accumulate and the result is an entirely different organism (not just a variation of the original, but an entirely different creature).

6. Charles darwin – Natural selection
“Natural selection acts only by taking advantage of slight successive variations; she can never take a great and sudden leap, but must advance by short and sure, though slow steps.“ – Charles Darwin
Natural selection acts to preserve and accumulate minor advantageous genetic mutations.
Suppose a member of a species developed a functional advantage (it grew wings and learned to fly). Its offspring would inherit that advantage and pass it on to their offspring. The inferior (disadvantaged) members of the same species would gradually die out, leaving only the superior (advantaged) members of the species.
Natural selection is the preservation of a functional advantage that enables a species to compete better in the wild. Natural selection is the naturalistic equivalent to domestic breeding. Over the centuries, human breeders have produced dramatic changes in domestic animal populations by selecting individuals to breed. Breeders eliminate undesirable traits gradually over time. Similarly, natural selection eliminates inferior species gradually over time.

7. General Terms Related to Human Evolution
Fossil - The mineralized bone of an extinct animal. The remains of past life-forms.
Primate - Large-brained, mostly tree- dwelling mammals with three-dimensional color vision and grasping hands. Humans are primates.
Hominid - Modern human beings and our ancestors, generally defined as the primates who habitually walk erect. Technically, the members of the family Hominoidea.

10. Human Species Australopithecus 1.5 – 4 million years ago
Homo Neanderthalis
35,000 – 85,000 years ago
Homo Habilis
1.75 million years ago
Cro-Magnon
10, ,000 years ago
Homo Erectus
300, million years ago
Homo Sapiens
10,000 - present years ago (but not always in class)

11. Australopithecus - A genus of the family Hominoidea characterized by small-brained hominids with mixed fruit/vegetable diet.
Homo - A genus of the family Hominoidea characterized by large-brained hominids with an omnivorous diet

13. Australopithecus 1.5 – 4 million years ago
First fossils found in 1924, a young child
Small brain capacity cm3
Large brows and flat forehead
Mary Leakey discovered a complete skull in Tanzania
Donald Johanson in 1974 discovered the remains of the most complete specimen ever found – known as “Lucy”
They may have used primitive tools, but little evidence

14. One of the earliest of modern man's ancestors, Australopithecus afarensis lived between 4 million and 3.2 million years ago in eastern Africa.
Australopithecus africanus lived between 3 and 2.3 million years ago mostly in South Africa

17. (below) A single footprint of Australopithecus afarensis
(above) A single footprint of Australopithecus afarensis (top), left some 3.5 million years ago at Laetoli, Tanzania, shows a striking similarity to a single footprint of a habitually barefoot modern human being from Peru

18. Homo Habilis 1.75 million years ago
The handy human being first discovered by Louis Leakey in 1964 in Tanzania
Had a larger brain Australopithecus about capacity cm3
Had large, sharp canine teeth and smaller rear teeth than Australopithecus
It probably used tools for skinning animals and powerful arms suggest some time spend living in trees

21. Homo Erectus 300,000 -1.5 million years ago
Eugene Dubois discovered homo erectus on the island of Java
At first he thought it was an “upright ape” but later changed because of human similarities
Remains have been found in China (called Peking), Tanzania and Algeria
Fair sized brain about capacity cm3
This species learned to use fire for warmth, how to co-operate with others to hunt animals and how to design stone tools such as axes

25. Homo Neanderthalis 35,000 – 85,000 years ago
Discovered accidentally by quarry workers in Germany 1856
Thomas Huxley used the discovery to support Charles Darwin’s Theories
Neanderthalis has a similar brain to ours a capacity cm3
It may have been possible for it communicate through speech
Practiced many social behaviours such as burying its dead in graves Produced a wide variety of tools such as knifes, scrapers and chisels

29. Cro magon
10, ,000 years ago
Again by accident in 1868 in France by road workers
The site not only had fossils but the artifacts of a community, including tools and shelters
Later remains were discovered in Italy, France and Czech Rep.
Highly developed culture, decorated hand tools, ornaments and cave paintings
Very good hunters, worked in teams

33. Homo Sapiens – ‘Knowing Human / Wise Human
10,000 years ago - present
Homo sapiens named “wise humankind” – yet to be proven
Large brain capacity cm3 , power of communication through speech
Developed sophisticated tools of stone and
iron
Also advanced cave painting to new levels
Stonehenge a prehistoric monument in southern England originates from this period – sense of religion & supernatural
Species has continued to change from nomadic to settlement/agricultural life around 5000 years ago

36. STONE HENGE -
It was used as a religious or ceremonial center by the pre-historic inhabitants of the region.

38. EVOLUTIONARY FUNCTIONS -
Bipedalism (moving/walking on 2 legs)
Hand Functions
Cranial Capacity (size of skull – determines brain size)
Tool Design
Tooth Size
Communication - Speech, Language, Art

39. Bipedalism – Skeletal and muscular structures of a human's leg and a gorilla's leg.

40. Several differences allow the human being to walk erect on two legs with a striding gait rather than move in a knuckle-walking fashion like the gorilla – one example includes: in the legs the femurs (thighbones) are relatively long and are set farther apart at the hips than they are at the knees.

41. Refinements in hand structure A fully opposable thumb gives the human hand its unique power grip (left) and precision grip (right).

42. Cranial Capacity – Brain Size
The increase in hominin cranial capacity over time.

43. Tool Design
Stone tools of the Acheulean industry, used by Homo erectus and early modern humans, and of the Mousterian industry, used by Neanderthals. (Top, left to right) Mid-Acheulean bifacial hand ax and Acheulean banded-flint hand ax. (Centre) Acheulean hand tool. (Bottom, left to right) Mousterian bifacial hand ax, scraper, and bifacial point.

44. Tooth size comparison

45. communication Dagger Carvings – Stonehenge
Horse in world's oldest painted prehistoric cave, 15,000-10,000 BC Lascaux, France