1. Developmental Theories
CHAPTER 11
On May 20, 1998, 15-year-old Kip Kinkel was suspended pending an expulsion hearing from Thurston High School for being in possession of a loaded, stolen handgun. At home that afternoon, Kinkel was told by his father that he would be sent to military school if he did not change his behavior. According to Kinkel's taped confession, at about 3:00 p.m., his father was seated at the kitchen counter drinking coffee. Kinkel retrieved his .22 rifle from his bedroom and ammunition from his parents' bedroom. He then went to the kitchen and shot his father once in the back of the head, then dragged his body into the bathroom and covered it with a sheet. Kinkel further stated that his mother arrived home at about 6:30 p.m., and that he met her in the garage, told her he loved her, then shot her twice in the back of the head, three times in the face, and once in the heart. He then dragged her body across the floor and covered it with a sheet.
On May 21, 1998, Kinkel drove his mother's Ford Explorer to Thurston High School. He wore a trench coat to hide the five weapons he carried: two hunting knives, a 9x19mm Glock 19 pistol, a Ruger .22-caliber semi-automatic rifle, and a .22-caliber Ruger MK II pistol. He was carrying 1,127 rounds of ammunition. Once at the school, Kinkel fired a total of 50 rounds, hitting with 37 of those, and killing two. He is serving a 111-year sentence without the possibility of parole.
CJ 450D

2. Learning Goal
Students will learn more about the dynamic criminological theories of development which address an element that many theories do not: why people desist from crime.

3. Performance Objectives
Explain why the juvenile years are often a time of antisocial impulses and experimentation.
List the seven major criminogenic risk factors for adolescents.
List the six protective factors for adolescents.
Examine the three developmental pathways to delinquency conceptualized by Thornberry, Huizinga, and Loeber.

4. Performance Objectives
Identify the five life domains and two “super traits” that make up Agnew’s “Super Traits” theory.
Discuss the two key concepts of Farrington’s ICAP theory.
Distinguish between the common characteristics, of what Moffitt calls, adolescent-limited offenders and life-course persistent offenders.
Explain the two main components of Sampson and Laub’s age-graded theory.

5. Introduction Developmental theories…
Are concerned with the onset, frequency, duration, seriousness, and desistance of offending behaviors.
Are dynamic in that they emphasize individual development that depends on a variety of interactive individual and social factors which vary across a life span.
Maintain that a criminal career may be initiated at any time, but almost all begin in childhood or adolescence (only about 4% are initiated in adulthood).
Bullet #3 – Such factors that would vary across a lifespan would be acceptance by antisocial peers (tends to fade into adulthood) and marriage / careers (which begin in adulthood).

6. The Juvenile Years
Delinquency is the legal term that is given to adolescent offending.
Rates for criminal behavior over the life course show (all cultures world-wide and over different time periods):
A sharp increase in offending beginning in early adolescence;
Peaks in mid-adolescence;
A steep decline in early adulthood followed by a steady decline; by age 28 about 85% of former delinquents have desisted.

7. The Juvenile Years

8. The Juvenile Years
To help explain why adolescence is full of antisocial impulses and experimentation the 2003 adolescent brain development conference of the New York Academy of Sciences (NYAS) put forth the following four key messages:
Much of adolescent behavior is rooted in biology interacting with environmental influences causing conflicts with parents; take more risks; and experience wide swings in emotion.

9. The Juvenile Years
The body is physically maturing faster than the nervous system (the body and the brain lack synchrony).
Adolescents’ sensitivities to rewards appear to be different than adults, prompting them to seek higher levels of novelty and stimulation to achieve the same feeling of pleasure.
With the right dose of guidance and understanding, adolescence can be a relatively smooth transition.
In summary, the NYAS is saying that the immature behavior of many adolescents is mirrored by the immaturity of their brains.

10. The Juvenile Years
During puberty, adolescents experience profound chemical and physical changes in the brain.
Testosterone surge – If at age 9, males get a cup of testosterone per day; at age 15 they get 1.25 gallons!
Dopamine (the excitatory “go get it” neurotransmitter) is peaking.
Serotonin (the inhibitory “hold your horses” neurotransmitter) is reduced.
Axons in the PFC are not yet fully myelinated, which results in a larger time lapse between the onset of an emotional event in the limbic system and a person’s rational judgment of it.
Bullet #2 – Male levels of testosterone are more than 10 times that of females during adolescence.
Bullet #5 - Myelin is a fatty substance that coats and insulates axons and allows for the rapid transmission of brain messages.

11. Risk & Protective Factors
A risk factor is a condition or trait in individuals, families, communities, or society that increases the probability of an individual offending.
A protective factor is a condition or trait in individuals, families, communities, or society help people deal more effectively mitigate or eliminate risk.
Most risk and protective factors are dynamic.
It is typical for both risk and protective factors to cluster together.

12. Major Criminogenic Risk Factors
1. Criminal History –The only static risk factor
2. Pro-criminal Associates (isolation from pro-social associates) – Primary social group uses substances and/or condones and participates in criminal behavior
3. Vocational or Educational – Low level of skills and/or investment
4. Negative Family Factors – Verbal abuse, physical abuse/neglect, substance abuse, poor supervision
What factors lead to an increased probability of engaging in criminal behavior?
Andrews and Bonita (2004); Loeber and Farrington (1998); Patterson and Dishion (1992)
(Source: Andrews & Bonta, 1994 and Pennsylvania DOC, 2007)

13. Major Criminogenic Risk Factors
5. Antisocial Attitudes, Values and Beliefs (risky thinking) –
Rationalization – “everybody does it, so what’s the problem”, “she was asking for it”, “I have the right to do what I want”
Minimization – “nobody got hurt, so it’s OK”, “they got insurance”
Denial of responsibility – “I was set up”, “I’ve already been punished enough”
Inflated self-esteem – “no way I’m working at Mickey D’s”
Street justice – “this kid was mad-doggin’ me, so I had to pop him”
Ego – “I'm too smart to get caught”
What factors lead to an increased probability of engaging in criminal behavior?
Andrews and Bonita (2004); Loeber and Farrington (1998); Patterson and Dishion (1992)
(Source: Andrews & Bonta, 1994 and Pennsylvania DOC, 2007) 13 13

14. Major Criminogenic Risk Factors
6. Particular Behavioral Characteristics
Poor self-control/self regulation – “I got frustrated with my PO, so I said to hell with it, I don’t care any more”
Weak problem-solving and social skills - “What do you expect? I needed money to pay my restitution, so I sold drugs…”
Low frustration tolerance
Low trust in others
Engages in risk taking behaviors
7. Substance Abuse
What factors lead to an increased probability of engaging in criminal behavior?
Andrews and Bonita (2004); Loeber and Farrington (1998); Patterson and Dishion (1992)
(Source: Andrews & Bonta, 1994 and Pennsylvania DOC, 2007)

15. Protective Factors Family Attitudes/Beliefs
Pro-social Peer Group Attachment
School
Family - High levels of love and support; Positive communication -child seeks advice; Parents encourage school success; Clear rules and consequences-monitors whereabouts; Parents model pro-social behavior and attitudes; Parents reinforce achievements
Attitudes/Beliefs - Youth places value on helping other people and promoting equality; Youth tells truth-even when not easy; Youth accepts responsibility for behavior; Youth optimistic about future
School - School provides a safe and encouraging environment; School provides clear rules and expectations; Teachers encourage youth success; Youth involved in extra-curricular activities; Youth motivated to do well; Youth has B average or better

16. Protective Factors Attachment to the Community:
Clubs / Sports / Volunteerism
Spiritual / Religious Group
Mentors
Personality Characteristics
Attachment to Community - Receive support from non-parent adults; Has caring neighbors who monitor youth; Involved in the community; Feels safe in the community; Neighbors are pro-social; Involved in supervised and organized activities; adult in youth’s life (other than family member) that you can talk to.
Personality Characteristics - Youth has skill to plan ahead and make choices; Youth has empathy, sensitively and friendship skills; Youth can resist peer pressure; Youth can resolve conflict nonviolently; Youth feels they have control over things that happen to them; Youth optimistic about future; Youth has problem solving and communication skills 16 16

17. Developmental Pathways
Thornberry, Huizinga, and Loeber (2004)
Three developmental pathways of offending:
Authority conflict pathway – starts before puberty with simple stubborn behavior followed by defiance and authority avoidance (truancy, running away, curfew).
Covert pathway – starts after puberty and involves minor offenses (shoplifting, lying) that become progressively more serious (vandalism, fire setting, fraud, serious theft, and burglary).
Overt pathway – progresses from minor aggression to serious violent acts (physical assaults to rape/robbery).
The overall lesson of this model is that as boys get older, their crimes become more serious, but fortunately, there are fewer serious crimes committed.

18. Developmental Pathways
The overall lesson of this model is that as boys get older, their crimes become more serious, but fortunately, there are fewer serious crimes committed.

19. Agnew’s “Super Traits”
Robert Agnew identified five life domains that contain possible crime-generating factors:
Personality
Family
School
Peers
Work
Personality traits set people on a developmental trajectory that influences how other people react to them.
Personality variables “condition” the effect of social variables.

20. Agnew’s “Super Traits”
Agnew identified two underlying traits of low self-control and irritability (negative emotionality) as “super traits.”
These two traits encompass many of the traits we’ve discussed such as sensation seeking, impulsivity, low empathy, etc.
People with low self-control and irritability are more likely to evoke negative responses from family members, school teachers, peers, and workmates.
Bullet #3 – This feedback process is the evocative gene-environment correlation we discussed last week in Chpt. 10.

21. Agnew’s “Super Traits”
Bullet #3 – This feedback process is the evocative gene-environment correlation we discussed last week in Chpt. 10.

22. Farrington’s ICAP Theory
Integrated cognitive antisocial potential theory stresses that early biological and environmental conditions affect choice and that these choices lead to particular ways of thinking.
ICAP theory is also interested in the process of desisting from offending.
As people age, they tend to become less impulsive and less easily frustrated.
As people age, they experience life events which shift patterns of interaction.
The events decrease offending opportunities by shifting routine activities.
These events increase informal controls.
These events change cognition.
Bullet #4 – As people age, they experience life changes such as marriage, steady employment, moving to a new area, etc.
Bullet #5 – Routine activities such as hanging out at bars drinking with male peers, etc.
Bullet #6 – Informal controls such as having a family and work responsibilities.
Bullet #7 – Change cognition in the form of reduced subjective rewards for offending because the costs are now much higher. Peer approval now becomes potential disapproval from wives and family members.

23. Farrington’s ICAP Theory
The two key concepts in ICAP are:
Antisocial potential (AP) – a person’s risk to engage in crime.
Long-term AP tends to affect people who come from poor families, poor socialization, are impulsive, and are sensation seeking.
Short-term AP people may temporarily increase their AP in response to certain situations, however can turn into long-term AP over time if reinforced.
Cognition – the thinking or decision-making process that turns potential into actual behavior.

24. Moffitt’s Dual Pathway
The vast majority of youth who offend during adolescence desist with only a small number who continue offending into adulthood.
Those who desist Moffitt calls adolescent-limited (AL) offenders. Such youth:
Are “normal” youth who are adapting to the adolescent transition events that they are encountering.
Comprise the majority (at least 85%) of youth offenders.
Have accumulation of positive attachments and academic skills.
Desist from crime abruptly or over time, at a slower pace.
Desist because they are “psychologically healthy” and are able to adapt to change in a positive manner.

25. Moffitt’s Dual Pathway
Those who continue to offend into adulthood Moffitt calls life course-persistent (LCP) offenders. Such youth:
Have an early onset of offending (pre-puberty).
Suffer from neuropsychological and temperamental deficits as a result of a combination of genetic and environmental effects on brain development.
Demonstrate antisocial that are consistently cross- situational (lie at home, cheat at school, fight in bars, embezzle at work).
Commit more crimes and are convicted of more serious crimes.

26. Sampson & Laub’s Age-Graded Theory
Emphasizes environmental circumstances and human agency (the purposeful execution of choice and individual will) as opposed to individual traits.
Although a person may be disadvantaged by the past, they do not have to be a prisoner to it.
Rather than explaining why some people commit crimes due to individual risk factors, this theory focuses on the situational factors that influence people in resisting, or desisting from, crime.

27. Sampson & Laub’s Age-Graded Theory
Assumes that we have to learn to be good rather than learn to be bad and ties to prosocial people are critically important to this prosocial learning process.
People who bond well with prosocial (conventional) others are able to build social capital.
Positive relationships built on norms of reciprocity and trust, developed over time, on which the person can depend on for support in times of need.

28. Sampson & Laub’s Age-Graded Theory
Life is a series of significant events called turning points, which may change one’s life trajectories, especially those lacking social capital, in a prosocial direction.
Important turning points include getting married, gaining steady employment, moving to a new neighborhood, or entering military service.
Turning points are processes rather than events, which may also accentuate antisocial tendencies or at least leave them intact.
Bullet #3 – Offenders may convert life events (marriage, job, etc.) into sources of satisfaction that are consistent with their previous criminal behavior, thus expanding their antisocial repertoire into domestic abuse and workplace crime.

29. Evaluation
If there is a “gold standard” for criminological theory, developmental theories would have to be it because…
They consider and integrate sociological, psychological, and biological factors as a coherent whole;
They are dynamic in nature;
Thy follow the same individuals over long periods of time which allows for cause/effect analysis;
They can identify characteristics that lead to onset, persistence, and desistance from crime in the same individuals.
Developmental theories are primarily based on longitudinal cohort data which is very hard to come by and expensive to collect. (–)

30. Policy & Prevention
Developmental theories support the same kind of nurturing family-based prevention strategies supported by biosocial and social / self-control theories.
Family-based interventions as early as possible to help nurture bonds between children and their parents
Prenatal and postnatal care, including home visitation
Family directed wrap around services involving multiple social services agencies
Parenting effectiveness training
In-home skills trainers to assist with both child and parents

31. Guest Speaker – John Lynch
NEXT WEEK…
Guest Speaker – John Lynch
Topic – Sex Offenders