1. Welcome to Biopsychology
Starter: What did we cover in Biopsychology last year?

2. Specification
The divisions of the nervous system: central and peripheral (somatic and autonomic).
The structure and function of sensory, relay and motor neurons. The process of synaptic transmission, including reference to neurotransmitters, excitation and inhibition.
The function of the endocrine system: glands and hormones.
The fight or flight response including the role of adrenaline.
Localisation of function in the brain and hemispheric lateralisation: motor, somatosensory, visual, auditory and language centres; Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas, split brain research. Plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma.
Ways of studying the brain: scanning techniques, including functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); electroencephalogram (EEGs) and event-related potentials (ERPs); post-mortem examinations.
Biological rhythms: circadian, infradian and ultradian and the difference between these rhythms. The effect of endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers on the sleep/wake cycle.

3. Learning Objectives
Describe the extent to which brain functions are localised. What question would you like answered? Write it on a post it note and put it to one side.

4. Localisation of function in the brain- what does that even mean?
It refers to the theory that different areas of the brain are responsible for different behaviours, processes or activities.
In other words, different functions are localised in certain areas.

5. Phineas Gage
Whilst you’re watching this, think about:
The curious case of Phineas Gage
Why am I showing you this?
Does this case support location theory or holistic theory?

6. Localisation vs Holistic theory
Once upon a time, scientists used to support the holistic theory- the idea that all parts of the brain were involved in processing thought and action. Along came Broca and Wernicke who discovered that specific areas of the brain are associated with different physical and psychological functions.

7. Broca’s and Wernicke’s works (and then cases like Phineas Gage) suggested localisation of function; the idea that different parts of the brain perform different tasks (the opposite to holistic theory). So, what does this mean in the ‘real world’? (Think brain damage)

8. Biological facts
Hemispheres We have two hemispheres- some of our physical and psychological actions are controlled by a certain hemisphere. Generally, activity on the left-hand side of the body (e.g. a left hander) is controlled by the right hemisphere and vice versa.

9. The outer layer of the brain is called the cerebral cortex.
It’s about 3mm thick.
It separates us from other animals because ours is much more developed.
The cortex of both areas is divided into four lobes; each lobe is associated with a different function.

10. Motor area
Somatosensory area
Visual area
Auditory area

12. Language area Language is restricted to the left side of the brain.
Broca (1880s) identified a small area in the left frontal lobe which is responsible for speech production.
Damage to Broca’s area causes Broca’s aphasia which is characterised by speech that is slow, laborious and lacking in fluency
Broca's aphasia

13. Wernicke was also working in this field at the same time.
He discovered patients who had no problem producing language but severe difficulties understanding it.
The speech they produced was fluent but meaningless.
Wernicke’s area is in the left temporal lobe and is responsible for speech comprehension.
Wernicke's aphasia

14. Evaluations Brain scan evidence
There is a wealth of evidence providing support for the idea that many neurological functions are localised, particularly in relation to language and memory
Peterson (1988) used brain scans to demonstrate how Wernicke’s area was active during a listening task and Broca’s area was active during a reading task, suggesting that these areas
There now exists a number of highly sophisticated and objective methods for measuring activity in the brain (see page 44) which provide sound scientific evidence for the localisation of brain function

15. Evaluations Neurosurgical evidence
This is by far the most extreme treatment as it involves the destruction of healthy brain tissue:
  Lobotomy: removal of the brain tissue
  Leucotomy: cutting the connections to a particular part of the brain
Controversially, neurosurgery is still used today for treatment-resistant severe depressives and extreme cases of OCD. The success of these procedures strongly suggests that symptoms and behaviours associated with serious mental disorders are localized

16. Evaluations Case study evidence
Aim: To explain the cause of Gage’s change of personality.
Method: Whist working on the railroad, 25 year old Gage was preparing to blast a section of rock using explosives. He dropped his tamping iron onto the rock, which caused the explosive to ignite. The explosion hurled the meter length iron pole, point first through his left cheek. It passed behind his left eye, and exited his brain and skull from the top of his head. It was found 25 to 30 yards behind him covered in bits of his brain. He was knocked over but is not believed to have lost consciousness.
Results: He survived, and after months of recovery wanted to regain his job. Before the accident he had been a most capable and efficient foreman, one with a well-balanced mind, and who was looked on as a shrewd smart business man.  However, no one would employ him as his personality had changed from someone who was kind and reserved to someone who was now boisterous, rude and grossly blasphemous. His friends said he was "No longer Gage."
Conclusion: As Damasio et al. stated; although his accident was horrific, it has taught us a great deal about the complexity of psychological processes that occur in the human brain.
Evaluation: We must be careful about generalising these findings, as they are based on one very rare case of an unfortunate individual.

17. Evaluations Higher cognitive functions are not localised
Not all researchers agree with the view that cognitive functions are localised in the brain. The work of Karl Lashley (1950) suggests that the basic motor and sensory functions were localised, but that higher mental functions were not.
Lashley claimed that intact areas of the cortex could take over responsibility for specific cognitive functions following injury to the area normally responsible for that function.
According to this point of view, the effects of damage to the brain would be determined by the extent rather than the location of the damage.
This view received some support from the discovery that humans were able to regain some of their cognitive abilities following damage to specific areas of the brain.

18. Summary questions
Using an example, explain what is meant by the term ‘localisation’ [3 marks]
Describe one study in which localisation of brain function was investigated. Include details of what the psychologists did and what was found [3 marks]
Name the three concentric layers of the human brain [3 marks]
Name the four lobes of the human brain – for each lobe, give an example of an associated function [8 marks]

19. Essay question
Discuss the extent to which brain functions are localised. Refer to evidence in your answer [16 marks]
Systematic research from Wernicke and Broca onwards has demonstrated that in most people language centres are lateralised to the left hemisphere
Wernicke’s area seems to be responsible for the interpretation of speech – damage leads to receptive or sensory aphasia
Broca’s area was thought to be responsible for the production of speech this is now thought to involve a wider network than just Broca’s area – damage leads to production (expressive) or motor aphasia
Use of research evidence to support explanation
Problems associated with different types of research evidence