1. Chapter 5 Motivation at Work
1 Define motivation.
2 Explain how Theory X and Theory Y relate to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
3 Discuss the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation.
4 Describe the two-factor theory of motivation.
5 Explain two new ideas in human motivation.
6 Describe the role of inequity in motivation.
7 Describe the expectancy theory of motivation.
8 Describe the cultural differences in motivation.
Learning Outcomes
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

2. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Learning Outcome 1
Define motivation.
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

3. Definition of Motivation
the process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 6 6 6 2 2 6

4. MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES
Internal
Suggest that variables within the individual give rise to motivation and behavior
Example: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
Process
Emphasize the nature of the interaction between the individual and the environment
Example: Expectancy theory
External
Focus on environmental elements to explain behavior
Example: Two-factor theory
3 GROUPS
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 3

5. Early Philosophers Max Weber work contributes to salvation
of Motivational Theories
Max Weber
work contributes to salvation
Protestant work ethic
Sigmund Freud
delve into the unconscious mind to better understand a person’s motives and needs
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 7 7 7 5 3 7

6. Early Philosophers
of Motivational Theories
Adam Smith
“enlightened” self-interest; that which is in the best interest and benefit to the individual and to other people
Frederick Taylor
founder of scientific management; emphasized cooperation between management and labor to enlarge company profits
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 7 7 7 5 3 7

7. Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsSA
Lowest to highest order
Esteem
Love (Social)
Safety and Security
Physiological 2 5 2 6 4 2

8. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Learning Outcome 2
Explain how Theory X and Theory Y relate to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

9. Motivational Theories X and Y
Theory Y
A set of assumptions of how to manage individuals who are motivated by higher order needs
Theory X
A set of assumptions of how to manage individuals who are motivated by lower order needs
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

10. Theories Applied to Needs Hierarchy
Theory Y – a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by higher order needs
Esteem
Love (Social)
Theory X – a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by lower order needs
Safety and Security
Physiological 2 5 2 7 5 2

11. McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory X
Naturally indolent
Lack ambition, dislike responsibility, and prefer to be led
Inherently self-centered and indifferent to organizational needs
Naturally resistant to change
Gullible, not bright, ready dupes
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved. 7 8

12. McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory Y
Passive and resistant behaviors not inherent; result of organizational experience
People possess
Motivation
Development potential
Capacity for assuming responsibility
Readiness to direct behavior toward organizational goals
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved. 8 9

13. McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory Y
Management’s task—arrange conditions and operational methods so people can achieve their own goals by directing efforts to organizational goals
Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved.
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 8 9

14. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Alderfer’s ERG Theory SA
Growth
Esteem
Love (Social)
Relatedness
Safety and Security
Existence
Physiological
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 10

15. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Learning Outcome 3
Discuss the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation.
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

16. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
McClelland’s Theory
3 main categories of needs
Achievement
Power
Affiliation
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

17. McClelland’s Need Theory: Need for Achievement
a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns individuals’ issues of excellence, competition, challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming difficulties
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 6 6 6 2 15 6

18. McClelland’s Need Theory: Need for Power
a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need to make an impact on others, influence others, change people or events, and make a difference in life
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 6 6 6 2 16 6

19. McClelland’s Need Theory: Need for Affiliation
a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need to establish and maintain warm, close, intimate relationships with other people
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 6 6 6 2 17 6

20. 3 Motivational Need Theories
Maslow
McGregor
Alderfer
McClelland
Need for
Achievement
Self-actualization
Theory Y
Growth
Esteem
self
interpersonal
Higher
Order
Needs
Need for
Power
Belongingness (social and love)
Relatedness
Need for
Affiliation
Safety and Security interpersonal
physical
Theory X
Lower
Order
Needs
Existence
Physiological 18

21. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Learning Outcome 4
Describe the two-factor theory of motivation.
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

22. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene factor
Motivation factor
Both are work conditions, but each addresses a different part of an employee’s experience
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

23. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
HYGIENE FACTOR
maintenance factor
contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied
contributes to absence of complaints
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 9 11

24. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Motivation Factor
job enrichment
leads to superior performance & effort
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

25. Motivation–Hygiene Theory
Achievement
Achievement recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
Salary?
Motivation factors increase job satisfaction
Hygiene factors avoid job dissatisfaction
Company policy and administration
Supervision
Interpersonal relations
Working conditions
Salary
Status
Security
SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human. (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission. 10 13

26. Motivation–Hygiene Combinations
(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 14

27. Questions on Herzberg’s Theory
Is salary a hygiene or a motivational factor?
What role do individual differences (age, sex, social status, education) play?
What role do intrinsic job factors (work flow process) play?
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

28. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Learning Outcome 5
Explain two new ideas in human motivation.
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

29. New Ideas : Eustress, Strength, Hope
Eustress – healthy, normal stress
Opportunities
Challenges
Energy
Obstacles
Barriers
Frustration
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

30. New Ideas : Positive Energy and Full Engagement
Management of Energy
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

31. Beyond the Book: Intrinsic Motivation
A recent study examined the effects of job demands, job control, and job social support on fatigue and intrinsic motivation among a sample group of 555 nurses.
The study found no correlation between job social support and fatigue, but higher levels of support produced elevated levels of intrinsic motivation regardless of job-demands and job-control levels.
Intrinsic Motivation Increases with Instrumental
Support on the Job
A recent study examined the effects of job demands,
job control, and job social support on fatigue and intrinsic
motivation among 555 nurses in specialized
units for patients with different levels of mental deficiency.
The investigators thought that intrinsic motivation
among these nurses would increase when job
demands and job control were high, and also when
job social support was high. Further, they thought
that fatigue among the nurses would be high when
job demands were high and job control low, as well
as when job social support was low.
The investigators did find that job control reduced
fatigue in highly demanding jobs but found no evidence
that support on the job made any difference in the
nurses’ level of fatigue. Further, they found that the
availability of high levels of instrumental support on the
job produced elevated levels of intrinsic motivation for
the nurses. This latter finding concerning high levels of
instrumental support and intrinsic motivation held true
regardless of the level of job demands or job control.
The investigators suggest that increasing job social
support is the most effective way to enhance intrinsic
motivation for employees. Further, an important managerial
implication of the study is that refining interpersonal
skills associated with exchanging social
support with others, such as asking for help from others
on the job, may have very positive motivational
effects for employees at work.
SOURCE: N. W. van Yperen and M. Hagedoorn, “Do High Job
Demands Increase Intrinsic Motivation or Fatigue or Both? The
Role of Job Control and Job Social Support,” Academy of Management
Journal 46 (2003): 339–348.
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

32. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Learning Outcome 6
Describe the role of inequity in motivation.
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

33. Social Exchange & Equity Theory
Equity theory focuses on individual–environment interaction
Concerned with social processes
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

34. Individual–Organizational
Exchange Relationship
Organization
Individual
Organizational goals
Departmental objectives
Job tasks
Physiological needs
Security needs
Physical needs
Company status
Benefits
Income
Developmental potential
Employee knowledge
Employee skills and abilities
Demands
Contributions
SOURCE: J. P. Campbell, M. D. Dunnette, E. E. Lawler, III. And K. E. Weick, Jr. Managerial Behavior. Performance and Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill, Inc.

35. Adam’s Theory of Inequity
Inequity – the situation in which a person perceives he or she is receiving less than he or she is giving, or is giving less than he or she is receiving
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

36. Equity and Inequity at Work
Person Comparison
other
Equity Outcomes = Outcomes Inputs Inputs
Negative Outcomes < Outcomes
Equity Inputs Inputs
Positive Outcomes > Outcomes
Equity Inputs Inputs 19

37. Strategies for Resolution of Inequity
Alter the person’s outcomes
Alter the person’s inputs
Alter the comparison other’s outputs
Alter the comparison other’s inputs
Change who is used as a comparison other
Rationalize the inequity
Leave the organizational situation
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 7 7 7 3 20 7

38. New Perspectives on Equity Theory
I prefer an equity ratio equal to that of my comparison other
Equity Sensitive
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 21

39. New Perspectives in Equity Theory
I am comfortable with an equity ratio less than that of my comparison other
Benevolent
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 22

40. New Perspectives on Equity Theory
Entitled
I am comfortable with an equity ratio greater than that of my comparison other
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 23

41. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Learning Outcome 7
Describe the expectancy theory of motivation.
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

42. Expectancy Theory of Motivation:
Key Constructs
Valence – value or importance placed on a particular reward
Expectancy – belief that effort leads to performance
Instrumentality – belief that performance is related to rewards
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 24

43. Expectancy Model of Motivation
Effort
Effort
Performance
Reward
Perceived effort –
performance
probability
Perceived
performance –
reward probability
Perceived
value of reward
“What are my chances of getting the job done if I put forth the necessary effort?”
“What are my chances of getting the rewards I value if I satisfactorily complete the job?”
“What rewards
do I value?” 25

44. 3 Causes of Motivational Problems
Belief that effort will not result in performance
Belief that performance will not result in rewards
The value a person places on, or the preference a person has for, certain rewards
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

45. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Moral Maturity
the measure of a person’s cognitive moral development
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

46. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Moral Maturity
Morally mature people behave and act based on universal ethical principles.
Morally immature people behave and act based on egocentric motivations.
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

47. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Learning Outcome 8
Describe the cultural differences in motivation.
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

48. Cultural Differences = Motivational theories are culturally bound
Research results differ among cultures
U.S. Results
Other Cultural Results =
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

49. Ways to Motivate People
Training
Coaching
Task assignments
Rewards contingent on good performance
Valued rewards available
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

50. Beyond the Book: Volunteering and Motivation
Canine Companions for Independence provides trained assistance dogs for the disabled.
Emily Williams, a volunteer at CCI, has helped to raise 180 dogs over the course of a decade.
SOURCE: R. Wolfe, “A Passion for Puppies: Volunteers for Canine Companions
Raise and Train Dogs for Human Assistance,” The Press Democrat
14 (August 31, 2003): B5.
Jack Warnock is a retired Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E) executive with multiple sclerosis who also suffered a
stroke. These health problems have not stopped Warnock; he still makes about 50 speaking appearances each
year in his wheelchair with his dog, Ellie, by his side. Ellie is a Canine Companion dog that has changed his life
in a positive way. Ellie knew 49 basic commands when she first met Warnock. She can gently pull off his socks
and slacks at bedtime and fetch things out of the refrigerator. Ellie even closes the refrigerator door when
Warnock says “Ellie, were you raised in a barn?”1 He recognizes that most people cannot imagine how Canine
Companion dogs change a person’s life nor how much work is involved for the puppy-raisers who prepare these
dogs to serve.
Canine Companions for Independence (CCI) has provided highly trained assistance dogs and ongoing support
to people with disabilities for more than 25 years. Nationally headquartered on the Schulz Campus in Santa Rosa,
California, CCI has four other regional training centers where dogs and humans work together as a team. More
than 2,000 assistance dog-and-human teams have gone through the training. Canine Companions may enter the
program as puppies in training or as “mama” dogs. The cost of raising and training one assistance dog for Canine
Companions is approximately $10,000. This cost includes medical care, food, and training by specialists. This
cost does not include the important contributions of volunteers who raise the assistance dogs from pups. Emily
Williams is one of these dedicated volunteers.
A Canine Companion volunteer for well over a decade, Emily Williams is motivated by love, not money. She receives
no salary; all she does is love puppies. She knows the name of every dog she has cared for—a total of 180
special dogs entrusted to Emily over the years. She has served as canine midwife, helping to whelp 19 litters, and
raised 10 assistance dogs in training. CCI cannot put a price tag on what Emily and
its other volunteers do. Nor could CCI afford to pay them for everything they do in
loving these puppies into mature dogs ready for assistance training. Emily is motivated
and inspired by the difficult road chosen by disabled persons who sign up for
a service dog. In recognition for her dedicated volunteer service, Emily was recognized
with CCI’s 2003 Jack Warnock Award for outstanding volunteer service.
At the end of CCI’s silver anniversary year, 9/11 struck. The tragic events of
that day would unfortunately increase the need for the indispensable services of
Canine Companions.
Watching the events of September 11, 2001, unfold on television, hospital administrative
director Dr. Tom Demaria realized that the children and families of
those killed would need long-term emotional support. Dr. Demaria acted quickly
and signed a lease for a 5,000-square-foot storefront in Rockville Centre to house
a counseling center. This counseling facility became the World Trade Center Child
and Family Counseling Program, sponsored by South Nassau Communities Hospital
and financed largely from two memorial funds—Project Liberty and the September
11th Fund. Anyone who lost a relative on 9/11 receives the program’s
services for free. The events of 9/11 are the kind of tragedy that threatens our
security and our sense of safety and triggers our need for emotional support and
nurturance. Dr. Demaria created a safe place where parents could bring their children
and be cared for themselves. The families made the rules in the counseling
center, not the counseling program’s 25 therapists, including psychologists, social
workers, and art therapists from the South Nassau hospital staff
These therapists are not alone in providing emotional support for the grieving.
CCI prepares its assistance dogs to help the disabled and also to be a source
of support and comfort for the grieving. Tom Flynn drove Derek, his three-year-
old Canine Companion golden retriever, every three weeks to Rockville Centre
from his home in Pennsylvania. For Kiersten Haub, who lost her firefighter father
Michael Haub in the 9/11 tragedy, Derek was a source of emotional support as
he would lay on the carpet, letting Kiersten ruffle his fur. Derek was trained at
CCI’s regional center at the State University at Farmingdale.
The trauma of sudden, violent death as caused by 9/11 is abnormal, threatens
people, and elicits deeper needs than usually experienced. These events take us
all out of the realm of normal human motivation and into the realm of coping
and recovery. The frustration, anger, and confusion experienced in these traumatic
circumstances are often labeled by victims as abnormal, while in fact they are quite
normal reactions to abnormal events. As people rebuild their self-confidence and
lives in the face of such tragedy, the wise words of an experienced therapist can
be helpful. So, too, can the gentle stroking of a Canine Companion by a traumatized
child be therapeutic and aid that child in the process of healing and recovery.
Coworkers, friends, family, and Canine Companions are all part of an
emotional support network in a person’s darkest hour before the dawn of a new
day and renewed strength.73
Emily is an unpaid volunteer—love for dogs and disabled persons are her sole motivations to work with CCI.
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.