1. Chapter 14: Motivation Theory and Practice
PowerPoint Presentation to Accompany Management, 2/e John R. Schermerhorn, Jr. and Barry Wright
Chapter 14: Motivation Theory and Practice
Prepared by: Jim LoPresti
University of Colorado, Boulder
Revised by: Dr. Shavin Malhotra
Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario
Published by: John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

2. Planning Ahead — Chapter 14 Study Questions
How do individual needs influence motivation?
What are the process theories of motivation?
What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
What are the alternative approaches to job design?
Management 2e - Chapter 14

3. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Types of content theories:
Hierarchy of needs theory
ERG theory
Two-factor theory
Acquired needs theory
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4. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Motivation and individual needs
Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.
Needs
Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of an individual.
Explain workplace behaviour and attitudes.
Create tensions that influence attitudes and behaviour.
Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need satisfaction.
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5. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Hierarchy of needs theory
Developed by Abraham Maslow.
Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace behaviour and attitudes.
Lower-order needs:
Physiological, safety, and social needs.
Desires for physical and social well being.
Higher-order needs:
Esteem and self-actualization needs.
Desire for psychological growth and development.
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6. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Hierarchy of needs theory
Deficit principle
A satisfied need is not a motivator of behaviour.
Progression principle
A need at one level does not become activated until the next lower-level need is satisfied.
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7. Figure 14.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs.
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8. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
ERG theory
Developed by Clayton Alderfer.
Three need levels:
Existence needs — desires for physiological and material well-being.
Relatedness needs — desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.
Growth needs — desires for continued psychological growth and development.
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9. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
ERG theory
Any/all needs can influence behaviour at one time.
Frustration-regression principle.
An already satisfied lower-level need becomes reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated.
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10. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Two-factor theory
Developed by Frederick Herzberg.
Hygiene factors:
Elements of the job context.
Sources of job dissatisfaction.
Satisfier factors:
Elements of the job content.
Sources of job satisfaction and motivation.
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11. Figure 14.2 Herzberg’s two-factor theory.
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12. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Acquired needs theory
Developed by David McClelland.
People acquire needs through their life experiences.
Needs that are acquired:
Need for Achievement (nAch)
Need for Power (nPower)
Need for Affiliation (nAff)
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13. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Acquired needs theory
Need for Achievement (nAch)
Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks.
People high in (nAch) prefer work that:
Involves individual responsibility for results.
Involves achievable but challenging goals.
Provides feedback on performance.
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14. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Acquired needs theory
Need for Power (nPower)
Desire to control other persons, to influence their behaviour, or to be responsible for other people.
Personal power versus social power.
People high in (nPower) prefer work that:
Involves control over other persons.
Has an impact on people and events.
Brings public recognition and attention.
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15. Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
Acquired needs theory
Need for Affiliation (nAff)
Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other persons.
People high in (nAff) prefer work that:
Involves interpersonal relationships.
Provides for companionship
Brings social approval.
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16. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
How people make choices to work hard or not.
Choices are based on:
Individual preferences.
Available rewards.
Possible work outcomes.
Types of process theories:
Equity theory.
Expectancy theory.
Goal-setting theory.
Self-efficacy theory.
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17. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Equity theory
Developed by J. Stacy Adams.
When people believe that they have been treated unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation.
Perceived inequity.
Perceived equity.
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18. Figure 14.3 Equity theory and the role of social comparison.
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19. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Equity theory
People respond to perceived negative inequity by changing …
Work inputs.
Rewards received.
Comparison points.
Situation.
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20. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Managerial implications of equity theory—
Underpaid people experience anger.
Overpaid people experience guilt.
Perceptions of rewards determine motivational outcomes.
Negative consequences of equity comparisons should be minimized, if not eliminated.
Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source of equity controversies in the workplace.
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21. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Expectancy theory
Developed by Victor Vroom.
Key expectancy theory variables:
Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance.
Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards.
Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes.
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22. Figure 14.4 Elements in the expectancy theory of motivation.
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23. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Expectancy theory
Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion:
M = E x I x V
If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low.
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24. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Managerial implications of expectancy theory—
To maximize expectancy, managers should:
Select workers with ability.
Train workers to use ability.
Support work efforts.
Clarify performance goals.
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25. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Managerial implications of expectancy theory—
To maximize instrumentality, managers should:
Clarify psychological contracts.
Communicate performance-outcome possibilities.
Identify rewards that are contingent on performance.
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26. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Managerial implications of expectancy theory—
To maximize valence in a positive direction, managers should:
Identify individual needs.
Adjust rewards to match individual needs.
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27. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Goal-setting theory
Developed by Edwin Locke.
Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly motivating.
Motivational effects of task goals:
Provide direction to people in their work.
Clarify performance expectations.
Establish a frame of reference for feedback.
Provide a foundation for behavioural self-management.
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28. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Key issues and principles in the goal-setting process:
Set specific goals.
Set challenging goals.
Build goal acceptance and commitment.
Clarify goal priorities.
Provide feedback on goal accomplishment.
Reward goal accomplishment.
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29. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Goal-setting theory
Participation in goal setting
unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting.
management by objectives (MBO) promotes participation.
when participation is not possible, workers will respond positively if supervisory trust and support exist.
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30. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Self-Efficacy Theory
a person’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task
Capability directly affects motivation
higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy.
self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting.
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31. Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Self-Efficacy Theory
Enactive mastery – person gains confidence through positive experience
Vicarious modeling – learning by observing others
Verbal persuasion – encouragement from others that one can perform a task
Emotional arousal – high stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation
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32. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Fundamentals of reinforcement theory Reinforcement theory focuses on the impact of external environmental consequences on behaviour.
Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on future behaviour.
Operant conditioning:
Developed by B.F. Skinner.
Applies law of effect to control behaviour by manipulating its consequences.
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33. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Operant conditioning strategies:
Positive reinforcement
Increases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence.
Negative reinforcement
Increases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence.
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34. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Operant conditioning strategies:
Punishment
Decreases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence.
Extinction
Decreases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent removal of an pleasant consequence.
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35. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on
Law of contingent reinforcement —
Reward delivered only if desired behaviour is exhibited.
Law of immediate reinforcement —
More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more reinforcement value it has.
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36. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Guidelines for using positive reinforcement:
Clearly identify desired work behaviours.
Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards.
Inform everyone about what must be done to get rewards.
Recognize individual differences when allocating rewards.
Follow the laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement.
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37. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Schedules of reinforcement:
Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each time a desired behaviour occurs.
Intermittent reinforcement rewards behaviour only periodically.
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38. Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Guidelines for using punishment:
Tell the person what is being done wrong.
Tell the person what is being done right.
Match the punishment to the behaviour.
Administer punishment in private.
Follow laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement.
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39. Figure 14.5 Applying reinforcement strategies: case of total quality management.
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40. Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?
A collection of tasks performed in support of organizational objectives.
Job design
The process of creating or defining jobs by assigning specific work tasks to individuals and groups.
Jobs should be designed so that both performance and satisfaction result.
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41. Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?
Job simplification.
Standardizing work procedures and employing people in well-defined and highly specialized tasks.
Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth.
Automation.
Total mechanization of a job.
Most extreme form of job simplification.
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42. Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?
Potential advantages of job simplification:
Easier and quicker training of workers.
Workers are less difficult to supervise.
Workers are easier to replace.
Development of expertise in doing repetitive tasks.
Potential disadvantages of job simplification:
Productivity suffers.
Cost increases due to absenteeism/ turnover of unhappy workers.
Poor performance may result from worker boredom/ alienation.
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43. Figure 14.6 Basic job design alternatives.
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44. Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?
Job rotation and job enlargement:
Expands job scope.
Job rotation.
Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different task assignments.
Job enlargement.
Increases task variety by combining two or more tasks previously assigned to separate workers.
Horizontal loading.
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45. Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?
Job enrichment.
Building more opportunities for satisfaction into a job by expanding its content.
Expands both job scope and job depth.
Frequently accomplished through vertical loading.
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46. Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?
Critical psychological states:
Experienced meaningfulness of work.
Experienced responsibilities for work outcomes.
Knowledge of actual results of work activities.
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47. Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?
Core job characteristics:
Skill variety.
Task identity.
Task significance.
Autonomy.
Feedback.
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48. Figure 14.7 Job design and individual work outcomes using the core characteristics model.
Source: Reprinted by permission from J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham, Work Redesign (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980), p. 90.
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49. Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?
Improving core job characteristics:
Form natural units of work.
Combine tasks.
Establish client relationships.
Open feedback channels.
Practice vertical loading.
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50. Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?
Flexible working hours.
Any work schedule that gives employees some choice in the pattern of their daily work hours.
Core time — all employees must be at work.
Flextime — allows employees to schedule around personal and family responsibilities.
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51. Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?
Potential benefits of flexible working hours:
People have greater autonomy in work scheduling while ensuring maintenance of work responsibilities.
Organizations can attract and retain employees who have special non-work responsibilities.
Worker morale may be improved.
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52. Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?
Compressed workweek.
Any work schedule that allows a full-time job to be completed in less than the standard 5 days of 8-hour shifts.
Benefits — more leisure time, lower commuting costs, lower absenteeism, and potentially improved performance.
Disadvantages — increased fatigue, family adjustment problems, increased scheduling problems, possible customer complaints, and union opposition.
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53. Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?
Job sharing.
One full-time job is split between two or more persons.
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54. Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?
Telecommuting.
A work arrangement that allows a portion of scheduled work hours to be completed outside of the office.
Hoteling.
Virtual offices.
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55. Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?
Potential advantages of telecommuting:
Freedom from
Constraints of commuting.
Fixed hours.
Special work attire.
Direct contact with supervisors.
Increased productivity.
Fewer distractions.
Being one’s own boss.
Having more personal time.
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56. Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?
Potential disadvantages of telecommuting:
Working too much.
Having less personal time.
Difficulty in separating work and personal life.
Less time for family.
Feelings of isolation.
Loss of visibility for promotion.
Difficulties supervising work-at-home employees from a distance.
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57. Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?
Part-time work.
Work done on any schedule less than the standard 40-hour workweek and does not qualify person as a full-time employee.
Contingency workers
Part-time workers who supplement the full-time workforce, often on a long-term basis.
Now constitute 30 percent of the American workforce.
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58. Study Question 4: What are the alternative approaches to job design?
Implications of part-time work:
Provides employers with flexibility in controlling labour costs and dealing with cyclical labour demands.
Temporary workers may lack commitment and be less productive.
Contingency workers are often paid less and don’t receive important fringe benefits.
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59. COPYRIGHT
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