1. JAPAN AND RUSSIA : INDUSTRIALIZATION OUTSIDE OF THE WEST
1850 – 1914

2. IMAGINING OPENING JAPAN

3. CHALLENGE TO ISOLATION
1853
American commodore Matthew Perry arrived
Demanded that Japan be opened to trade
1856
Japan was forced to receive Western consuls
Forced to open ports to foreign trade.
Shogun faced immediate opposition
Daimyos insisted on maintaining isolation
Shogun and the daimyos both made appeals to the emperor
Emperor began to emerge as a more powerful figure.
Meiji Restoration
Some among the samurai saw an opportunity to unseat the shogun
In 1860s samurai armed with Western weapons defeated shogun's army
In 1868, certain samurai restored imperial rule under Meiji Emperor

4. MEIJI STATE The Meiji government abolished feudalism 1884
Replaced the daimyo states with regional prefectures
Government sent samurai abroad to study political, economic organization (Europe & America)
Foreign observers were used to restructure the state
Government abolished payments to samurai
Some samurai fell into poverty others found avenues of employment in the government and business.
Conscription provided a new army
1884
Government created a new nobility to staff a House of Peers
Civil-service examinations were utilized to open the bureaucracy to men of talent.

5. 1889 constitution Recognized the supremacy of the emperor
But gave limited powers to an elected lower house of representatives within the Diet.
The new constitution was based on German models.
Voting rights were determined by property qualifications
Five percent of the population to cast ballots
The form of government gave great authority to wealthy businessmen and nobles
Political parties developed
A small oligarchy continued to dominate the government into the 20th century
Inclusion of businessmen among political elite was major difference from Russian model of reform

6. JAPAN’S INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
The army and navy became very influential in society
Many reforms were enacted to modernize the armed forces
Foundations for industrialization
Internal infrastructure was created
Guilds and internal tariffs were abolished
Clear title to land was granted to individuals

7. JAPAN’S INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Government Involvement
Lack of capital dictated direct government involvement in the stages of industrialization.
Japan established the Ministry of Industry in 1870 to oversee economic development
The government built model factories to provide experience with new technology
Education was extended as a means of developing a work force
Private enterprise soon joined government initiatives, particularly in textiles
Industrial combines or zaibatsus (monopolies) served to accumulate capital for major investment.

8. JAPAN’S INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Results
Japan's careful management of industrialization limited foreign involvement.
Japan continued to depend on the importation of equipment and raw materials from the West.
Rapid growth depended on existence of cheap supply of labor often drawn from poorly paid women.
More than Russia, Japan's industrialization depended on selling manufactured goods abroad.

9. COAL PRODUCTION IN JAPAN IN VARIOUS YEARS FROM 1875 TO 1913
Coal Production (metric tons)
1875
600,000
1885
1,200,000
1895
5,000,000
1905
13,000,000
1913
21,300,000
STATISTICS OF CHANGE
RAILROAD MILEAGE IN JAPAN IN VARIOUS YEARS FROM 1873 TO 1913
Year
Track (miles)
1872 18
1883
240
1887
640
1894
2100
1904
4700
1914
7100
RAW SILK PRODUCTION AND EXPORT FROM JAPAN
1868 TO 1913
Period
Production annual average (tons)
Exports annual average (tons)
1026
646
1883
1687
1347
4098
2444
7103
12460
9462
THE SIZE OF THE JAPANESE MERCHANT FLEET IN VARIOUS YEARS FROM 1873 TO 1913
Year
Number of Steamships
1873 26
1894
169
1904
797
1913
1514

10. EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIALIZATION
Social change led to rapid population growth
This strained Japanese resources but provided a ready supply of cheap labor.
As industrialization progressed, population growth dropped off.
Patriarchal households remained the norm but divorce rates indicated increasing instability within family life.
The education system stressed science and loyalty to the emperor
Westernization
Western culture arrived along with models of state and industrialization.
Shintoism as an expression of indigenous culture gained new popularity.

11. Foreign Policy Japan entered the race for colonial domination.
The need to employ the new army, the search for raw materials, and the desire to prevent Western encroachment all contributed to Japanese imperialism after 1890
Japan annexed the Ryuku Islands
Japan won easy victories over China in 1895 and over Russia in 1904.
The victories yielded Japan some territories in northern China
In 1910, Japan annexed Korea

12. RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR

13. STRAINS OF MODERNIZATION
Industrialization and successful imperialism had costs
Industrialization upended older traditions, social classes
Change is not accepted easily
Imperialism demanded a strong industrial base
Japan made the decision to be a great power and that meant arming
War industries tie up money in producing goods which have no benefit
Money spent on war could not be invested elsewhere
Unions, strikes arose in Japan and labor politics became part of industry
Carefully contrived political balance became unwieldy
Ministries were forced to call more frequent elections
Few working majorities in the Diet
Factions emerged in the Diet and old timers dominated proceedings
Rise of Nationalism
Conservatives appalled at trend to imitate the West.
Intellectuals bemoaned loss of an authentic Japanese identity
Both saw a Japan that was neither traditional nor Western.
Leaders urged loyalty to the emperor and the nation.
Nationalism became a strong force in Japanese politics.

14. IMAGES OF JAPANESE INDUSTRIALIZATION, WESTERNIZATION

15. COMPARING CHINA AND JAPAN
Comparisons in 1800
Similarities in 1800
Both had a Confucian culture, adopted a policy of relative isolation from contacts
Both lagged behind west scientifically, industrially; forcibly opened by the West about the same time
Differences
China surpassed Japan in development
Chinese Confucian leadership was stronger, more developed; government was secular, bureaucratic
Chinese centralized government had no feudal lords to impeded or distract it
China had a rich tradition of innovation and scientific discoveries

16. COMPARING CHINA AND JAPAN
So why did Japan succeed?
China lacked flexibility: tried to squash or control innovation
Japan knew benefits of innovation; had a strong autonomous mercantile tradition
Japan’s feudalism produced a dedicated militaristic elite, limited centralization
China hampered by rapid population growth which consumed energy, resources
Japan was island nation open to maritime contacts, influences: learned from Chinese mistakes
Japanese government suffered no breakdown of authority even during Meiji Restoration
Or Did China fail?
Chinese government less efficient, less popular as dynasty was in decline; intellectual life stifled
West fixated on China first as it was a greater prize
Western contacts only worsened internal situation and made reform, control difficult
Sino-Japanese War 1894 – 1895 proved Japan learned its lessons from the West

17. MAPPING RUSSIA

18. RUSSIA BEFORE REFORM
Russian leaders in the 18th and early 19th centuries
Isolated Russia from European revolution, Napoleon; completed shift to conservatism
Tsar Alexander I sponsored Holy Alliance, linked conservative monarchies together
Russian Intellectuals (Intelligentsia)
Remained connected to western European trends
This connection that worried the elite.
1825 and After
The Decembrist uprising
Western-oriented military officers attempted a coup
Defeated by Imperial forces and members hung
Tsar Nicholas I
Turned to repressive conservatism
Russia also lacked substantial middle or artisan classes
Both helped Russia avoid mid-19th century revolutions.
Official Nationality, Orthodoxy, Autocracy: Formal name to Nicholas’ policies
The tsar suppressed Polish nationalism in 1831 and demanded assimilation of minorities
Insisted on a traditional church and approach to politics especially autocracy
Pressed southward against the Ottoman Empire.
Russia supported nationalist movements in the Balkans as a means of weakening the Turks.

19. ECONOMIC, SOCIAL PROBLEMS
The reality of Russia’s position
Economy remained primarily agrarian
Fell behind the West in terms of production and trade
To maintain the profitability of grain exports
Tighter labor obligations were imposed on the peasantry
Tendency to export grain to raise money left many hungry
The Crimean War,
Russia wanted land on Black Sea and oil (under Ottoman control)
Demonstrated how far Russia had fallen behind the West
British & French forces helped Ottomans drive the Russians from the Crimea
Loss convinced Tsar Alexander II that reform was needed

20. IMAGINING THE CRIMEAN WAR

21. EMANCIPATION OF RUSSIAN SERFS
The Peasant Problem
In order to establish a more vigorous economy
Some attempt had to be made to resolve the peasant crisis.
Belief that a freer labor force could increase profitability.
Western criticism of Russian social injustice also stung Russian sensibilities.
Series of minor peasant rebellions in 1850s stimulated the movement for reform.
Tsar Alexander II emancipated the serfs in 1861
The freed serfs got most of the land
Aristocracy retained political and economic power
Serfs remained tied to their villages
Until they could pay for the land they received.
Redemption payments, taxes kept peasants in poverty
The emancipation produced a larger urban labor force
But failed to stimulate agricultural production
Slow pace of change engendered social dissatisfaction
Led to regional peasant uprisings, peasant distrust

22. RUSSIAN SERFDOM

23. REFORMS AND EARLY INDUSTRIALIZATION
Zemstvo Stamp
Alexander II carried out other reforms
Issued new law codes, established regional councils (zemstvoes) for input on local decisions
Began military reforms
Literacy spread more widely in society with the rise of a mass market in popular literary forms
Women gained power slightly through greater access to education
Somewhat loosened patriarchal authority
Industrialization and the State
Russia lacked a substantial middle class: state handled capital formation, investment
Russia created a substantial railroad network in the 1870s
Better transportation permitted more efficient use of Russia's abundant natural resources
The railroad also facilitated shipment of grain to the West, which in turn helped finance industrialization.

24. REFORMS AND EARLY INDUSTRIALIZATION
1880s – 1910s and the Results of Industrialization
Modern factories had begun to develop in major Russian cities
Count Sergei Witte, minister of finance from 1892 to 1903, enacted high tariffs to protect new industries.
Witte also encouraged Western investment in Russian industrialization.
As a result, nearly one half of Russia's industrial businesses were foreign-owned.
By 1900, Russia ranked fourth in steel production and second in petroleum production.
Russian factories were typically enormous but technologically inferior.
Agriculture also lagged behind Western standards of productivity.
The masses of Russian citizens were only slightly affected by industrialization.
Military reforms did not substantially alter the concept of peasant conscripts serving aristocratic landlords.
Russian industrialization produce a substantial middle class.

25. Russian Foreign Policy
Post-1855
Undo impact of Crimean War and conquer Ottoman Empire
Obtain Constantinople as outlet to the Mediterranean
Expand Russia’s influence in Asia
Expand Russian influence amongst Balkan peoples
Pan-Slavism and Slavophiles
Ideologies that portrayed Russia as leader of all Slavs
Goal was to liberate all Slavs, unite them under Russian rule
Sought to unite Slavs under Russian tsar, common state
Saw Russian culture as superior: anti-westernizers
Led to Russification in Russia and conflict with Germany, Russia

26. Russian Foreign Policy
Alliance with France in 1894 and later with England
Rise of Germany scared Russia who made common cause with France
Similar fears eventually caused Russia and UK to bury differences
Russo-Japanese War 1904 – 1905
Russian military expansion came to an end in 1904
Japan and Russia came into conflict over expansion in northern China.
The Japanese quickly defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War
Military defeat unleashed all of the dissenting forces in Russia.
Embarrassment at losing to “inferior”

27. RUSSIAN EXPANSION

28. Similarities
As late industrializing nations there were substantial similarities between Russia and Japan.
They both maintained economic and political independence during the West’s century of power
Both had achieved more effective central governments during the 17th and 18th centuries.
Both had prior experience with imitation
Japan from China
Russia from Byzantium and the West.
The imitated West but retained their own identity

29. Similarities
Both knew that learning from outsiders could be profitable and need not destroy their native cultures
Both improved their political effectiveness during the 17th & 18 centuries
Both used the state to sponsor changes (in the West change was initiated by private businesses)
Both were expansionist
Both experienced increases in literacy

30. Similarities
Both experienced tensions between traditionalists and reformist intellectuals
Extensive railroad network created in both countries
New parliaments created in both countries
Centralized authoritarian states
Pre World War I neither Russia nor Japan were equal to the West
Rise contributed to the growing sense of competition between established western powers.

31. GLOBAL CONNECTIONS
Russia's already established role in the world expanded in the 19th century, as its cultural, diplomatic, and military power came to be felt in Europe, the Ottoman Empire, and Asia.
Japan's role was newer, as it emerged from isolation to develop an increasingly powerful economy and to expand its influence in the western Pacific. Some nations in the West feared the yellow peril represented by Japan's emergence as an international power.
The addition of Russia, Japan, and the United States to the world diplomatic picture increased competition. Colonial acquisitions by the new powers heightened the competitive atmosphere, particularly in the Far East.