1. The Bass Diffusion Model
Model designed to answer the question:
When will customers adopt a new product or technology? 5 5 29 23

2. Assumptions of the Basic Bass Model
Diffusion process is binary (consumer either adopts, or waits to adopt)
Constant maximum potential number of buyers (N)
Eventually, all N will buy the product
No repeat purchase, or replacement purchase
The impact of the word-of-mouth is independent of adoption time
Innovation is considered independent of substitutes
The marketing strategies supporting the innovation are not explicitly included 6 6 30 24

3. Adoption Probability over Time
1.0
Cumulative Probability of Adoption up to Time t
F(t)
Introduction of product
Time (t)
(b)
Density Function: Likelihood of Adoption at Time t
f(t) = d(F(t)) dt
Time (t) 31

4. Number of Cellular Subscribers
9,000,000
5,000,000
1,000,000
Years Since Introduction
Source: Cellular Telecommunication Industry Association 7 7 25 32

5. Sales Growth Model for Durables (The Bass Diffusion Model)
St = p  Remaining + q  Adopters  Potential Remaining Potential
Innovation Imitation Effect Effect
where:
St = sales at time t
p = “coefficient of innovation”
q = “coefficient of imitation”
# Adopters = S0 + S1 + • • • + St–1
Remaining = Total Potential – # Adopters Potential 33

6. Parameters of the Bass Model in Several Product Categories
Innovation Imitation Product/ parameter parameter Technology (p) (q)
B&W TV
Color TV
Air conditioners
Clothes dryers
Water softeners
Record players
Cellular telephones
Steam irons
Motels
McDonalds fast food
Hybrid corn
Electric blankets
A study by Sultan, Farley, and Lehmann in 1990 suggests an average value of 0.03 for p and an average value of 0.38 for q. 11 11 34 31

7. Technical Specification of the Bass Model
The Bass Model proposes that the likelihood that someone in the population will purchase a new product at a particular time t given that she has not already purchased the product until then, is summarized by the following mathematical.
Formulation
Let:
L(t): Likelihood of purchase at t, given that consumer has not purchased until t
f(t): Instantaneous likelihood of purchase at time t
F(t): Cumulative probability that a consumer would buy the product by time t
Once f(t) is specified, then F(t) is simply the cumulative distribution of f(t), and from Bayes Theorem, it follows that:
L(t) = f(t)/[1–F(t)] (1) 35

8. Technical Specification of the Bass Model cont’d
The Bass model proposes that L(t) is a linear function: q
L(t) = p + –– N(t) (2) N
where
p = Coefficient of innovation (or coefficient of external influence)
q = Coefficient of imitation (or coefficient of internal influence)
N(t) = Total number of adopters of the product up to time t
N = Total number of potential buyers of the new product
Then the number of customers who will purchase the product at time t is equal to Nf(t) . From (1), it then follows that:
Nf(t) = [ p + –– N(t)][1 – N(t)] (3)
Nf(t) may be interpreted as the number of buyers of the product at time t [ = (t)]. Likewise, NF(t ) is equal to the cumulative number of buyers of the product up to time t [ = N(t)]. 36

9. Bass Model cont’d
Noting that [n(t) = Nf(t)] is equal to the number of buyers at time t, and [N(t) = NF(t)] is equal to the cumulative number of buyers until time t, we get from (2): q
Nf(t) = [ p + –– N(t)][1 – N(t)] (3) N
After simplification, this gives the basic diffusion equation for predicting new product sales: q
n (t) = pN + (q – p) [N(t)] – –– [N(t)]2 (4) N 37

10. Estimating the Parameters of the Bass Model Using Non-Linear Regression
An equivalent way to represent N(t) in the Bass model is the following equation: q
n(t) = p + –– N(t–1) [N – N(t–1)] N
Given four or more values of N(t) we can estimate the three parameters of the above equation to minimize the sum of squared deviations. 38

11. Estimating the Parameters of the Bass Model Using Regression
The discretized version of the Bass model is obtained from (4):
n(t) = a + bN(t–1) + cN 2(t–1)
a, b, and c may be determined from ordinary least squares regression. The values of the model parameters are then obtained as follows:
–b – b2 – 4ac
N = –––––––––––––– 2c a
p = –– N
q = p + b
To be consistent with the model, N > 0, b 0, and c < 0. 39

12. Forecasting Using the Bass Model—Room Temperature Control Unit
Cumulative Quarter Sales Sales
Market Size = 16,000 (At Start Price)
Innovation Rate = ,118 (Parameter p) ,234 4, , ,166
Imitation Rate = ,106 (Parameter q) , ,987
Initial Price = $ , ,000
Final Price = $ ,000
Example computations
n(t) = pN + (q–p) N(t–1) – q N(t–1) 2/N
Sales in Quarter 1 = 0.01 16,000 + (0.41–0.01)  0 – (0.41/16,000)  (0)2 = 160
Sales in Quarter 2 = 0.01  16,000 + (0.40)  160 – (0.41/16,000)  (160)2 = 40

13. Factors Affecting the Rate of Diffusion
Product-related
High relative advantage over existing products
High degree of compatibility with existing approaches
Low complexity
Can be tried on a limited basis
Benefits are observable
Market-related
Type of innovation adoption decision (eg, does it involve switching from familiar way of doing things?)
Communication channels used
Nature of “links” among market participants
Nature and effect of promotional efforts 13 13 41 33

14. Some Extensions to the Basic Bass Model
Varying market potential
As a function of product price, reduction in uncertainty in product performance, and growth in population, and increases in retail outlets.
Incorporation of marketing variables
Coefficient of innovation (p) as a function of advertising
p(t) = a + b ln A(t).
Effects of price and detailing.
Incorporating repeat purchases
Multi-stage diffusion process
Awareness  Interest  Adoption  Word of mouth 14 14 42 34

15. Pretest Market Models Objective
Forecast sales/share for new product before a real test market or product launch
Conceptual model
Awareness x Availability x Trial x Repeat
Commercial pre-test market services
Yankelovich, Skelly, and White
Bases
Assessor 6 6 43 43

16. ASSESSOR Model Objectives
Predict new product’s long-term market share, and sales volume over time
Estimate the sources of the new product’s share, which includes “cannibalization” of the firm’s existing products, and the “draw” from competitor brands
Generate diagnostics to improve the product and its marketing program
Evaluate impact of alternative marketing mix elements such as price, package, etc. 7 7 44 44

17. Overview of ASSESSOR Modeling Procedure
Management Input
(Positioning Strategy)
(Marketing Plan)
Consumer Research Input
(Laboratory Measures)
(Post-Usage Measures)
Preference
Model
Trial &
Repeat Model
Reconcile
Outputs
Draw &
Cannibalization
Estimates
Unit Sales
Volume
Brand Share
Prediction
Diagnostics 45 45

18. Overview of ASSESSOR Measurements
Design Procedure Measurement
O1 Respondent screening and Criteria for target-group identification recruitment (personal interview) (eg, product-class usage)
O2 Pre-measurement for established Composition of ‘relevant set’ of brands (self-administrated established brands, attribute weights questionnaire) and ratings, and preferences
X1 Exposure to advertising for established brands and new brands
[O3] Measurement of reactions to the Optional, e.g. likability and advertising materials (self- believability ratings of advertising administered questionnaire) materials
X2 Simulated shopping trip and exposure to display of new and established brands
O4 Purchase opportunity (choice recorded Brand(s) purchased by research personnel)
X3 Home use/consumption of new brand
O5 Post-usage measurement (telephone New-brand usage rate, satisfaction ratings, and repeat-purchase propensity; attribute ratings and preferences for ‘relevant set’ of established brands plus the new brand
O = Measurement; X = Advertsing or product exposure 46 46

19. Trial/Repeat Model Market share for new product Mn = T ´ R ´ W where:
T = long-run cumulative trial rate (estimated from measurement at O4)
R = long-run repeat rate (estimated from measurements at O5)
W = relative usage rate, with w = 1 being the average market usage rate. 10 10 47 47

20. Trial Model T = FKD + CU – (FKD) ´ (CU) where:
F = long-run probability of trial given 100% awareness and 100% distribution (from O4)
K = long-run probability of awareness (from managerial judgment)
D = long-run probability of product availability where target segment shops (managerial judgment and experience)
C = probability of consumer receiving sample (Managerial judgment)
U = probability that consumer who receives a product will use it (from managerial judgment and past experience) 11 11 48 48

21. p(nn) + p(no) = 1.0; p(on) + p(oo) = 1.0
Repeat Model
Obtained as long-run equilibrium of the switching matrix estimated from (O2 and O5):
Time (t+1) New Other
New p(nn) p(no) Time t Other p(on) p(oo)
p(.) are probabilities of switching where
p(nn) + p(no) = 1.0; p(on) + p(oo) = 1.0
Long-run repeat given by:
p(on) r = –––––––––––––– p(on) – p(nn) 12 12 49 49

22. Preference Model: Purchase Probabilities Before New Product Use
(Vij)b
Lij = –––––––– Ri
å (Vik)b
k=1
where:
Vij = Preference rating from product j by participant i
Lij = Probability that participant i will purchase product j
Ri = Products that participant i will consider for purchase (Relevant set)
b = An index which determines how strongly preference for a product will translate to choice of that product (typical range: 1.5–3.0) 13 13 50 50

23. Preference Model: Purchase Probabilities After New Product Use
(Vij)b
L´ij = ––––––––––––––––– Ri
(Vin)b + å (Vik)b
k=1
where:
L´it = Choice probability of product j after participant i has had an opportunity to try the new product
b = index obtained earlier
Then, market share for new product:
L´in M´n = En å ––– I N
n = index for new product
En = proportion of participants who include new product in their relevant sets
N = number of respondents 14 14 51 51

24. Estimating Cannibalization and Draw
Partition the group of participants into two: those who include new product in their consideration sets, and those who don’t. The weighted pre- and post- market shares are then given by:
Lin Mj = å ––– I N
L´in L´in M´j = En å ––– + (1 – En) å –––
I N I N
Then the market share drawn by the new product from each of the existing products is given by:
Dj = Mj – M´j 52 52

25. Example: Preference Ratings
Vij (Pre-use) V´ij (Post-use)
Customer B1 B2 B3 B4 B1 B2 B3 B4 New Product 53 53

26. Choice Probabilities
Lij (Pre-use) L´ij (Post-use) Customer B1 B2 B3 B4 B1 B2 B3 B4 New Product
Unweighted market share (%)
New product’s draw from each brand (Unweighted %)
New product’s draw from each brand (Weighted by En in %) 54 54

27. Assessor Trial & Repeat Model
Market Share Due to Advertising
Response Mode
Manual Mode
% making first purchase
GIVEN awareness &
availability
0.23
Prob. of awareness
0.70
Prob. of availability
0.85
Prob. of switching
TO brand
0.16
Prob. of repurchase
of brand
0.60
Max trial with
unlimited Ad
Ad$ for 50%
max. trial
Actual Ad $
Max awareness
with unlimited Ad
Ad $ for 50%
max. awareness
% buying brand in
simulated shopping
Awareness
estimate
Distribution
estimate (Agree)
Switchback rate of
non-purchasers
Repurchase rate
of simulation
purchasers
% making first
purchase due to
advertising
0.137
Retention rate
GIVEN trial
for ad purchasers
0.286
Long-term
market share
from advertising
0.39
Source: Thomas Burnham, University of Texas at Austin 55 55

28. Assessor Trial & Repeat Model
Market Share Due to Sampling
Correction for sampling/ad
overlap (take out those who
tried sampling, but would
have tried due to ad)
0.035
Sampling
coverage (%)
% Delivered 0.90
% of those delivered
hitting target 0.80
Simulation sample
use
Switchback rate of
non-purchasers
Repurchase rate of
simulation
Market share trying
samples
0.251
Long-term
market share
from sampling
0.02
% hitting target
that get used
0.60
Prob. of switching
TO brand
0.16
Prob. of repurchase
of brand
0.427
Retention rate
GIVEN trial
for sample receivers
0.218
Source: Thomas Burnham, University of Texas at Austin 56 56

29. Assessor Preference Model Summary
Pre-use preference
ratings
Pre-use choices
Post-use preference
Proportion of
consumers who
consider product
0.137
Beta (B) for
choice model
Pre-entry market
shares
Post-entry market
shares (assuming
consideration
0.274
Weighted
post entry
market shares
0.038
Pre-use constant
sum evaluations
Post-use constant
Cumulative trial
from ad
(T&R model)
0.137
Draw &
cannibalization
calculations
Source: Thomas Burnham, University of Texas at Austin 57 57

30. Assessor Market Share to Financial Results Diagrams
0.059
Market size
60M
Sales per person $5
JWC
factory sales
16.7
Average
unit margin
0.541
Ad/sampling
expense
4.5/3.5
Net
contribution
Industry average
sales $ for
market share
17.7
Frequency of use
differences
0.9
Unit-dollar
adjustment
0.94
Price differences
1.04
Return
on sales
Source: Thomas Burnham, University of Texas at Austin 58 58

31. Predicted and Observed Market Shares for ASSESSOR
Deviation Deviation Product Description Initial Adjusted Actual (Initial – (Adjusted – Actual) Actual)
Deodorant
Antacid –0.9 –0.5
Shampoo –0.2 –0.2
Shampoo –0.1 –0.1
Cleaner –0.5 –0.5
Pet Food –5.0 –1.0
Analgesic
Cereal
Shampoo
Juice Drink –0.1 –0.1
Frozen Food –0.2 –0.2
Cereal
Etc
Average
Average Absolute Deviation — — —
Standard Deviation of Differences — — — 59 59

32. BASES Model Trial volume estimate Pt = ´ ´
Calibrated Distribution Awareness
Pt = ´ ´
intent score intensityt levelt
Tt = Pt ´ U0 ´ (1/Sit) ´ (TM) ´ (1/CDI)
where:
Pt = Cumulative penetration up to time t
Tt = Total trial volume until time t in a particular target market
U0 = Average units purchased at trial (t = 0)
Sit = Seasonality index at time = t
TM = Size of target market
CDI = Category development index for target market 60 60

33. BASES Model cont’d Repeat volume estimate ¥ Rt = å Ni–1,t Yit Ui i=1
where:
Ni–1,t = Cumulative number of consumers who repeat at least i–1 times by week t (N0,t = initial trial volume)
Yit = Conditional cumulative ith repeat purchase rate at week t given that i–1 repeat purchases were made up to week t
Ui = Average units purchased at repeat level i
Ni–1,t & Yit are estimated based on consumers’ stated “after use intended purchase frequency” and estimate of long-run decay in repeat rate.
Ui is estimated based on consumers’ stated purchase quantities. 61 61

34. St = Tt ´ Rt + Adjustments for promotional volume
BASES Model cont’d
Total volume estimate
St = Tt ´ Rt + Adjustments for promotional volume 62 62

35. Yankelovich, Skelly and White Model
Forecast market share = S ´ N ´ C ´ R ´ U ´ K
where:
S = Lab store sales (indicator of trial),
N = Novelty factor of being in lab market. Discount sales by 20–40% based on previous experience that relate trial in lab markets to trial in actual markets,
C = Clout factor which retains between 25% and 75% of SN determined, based on proposed marketing effort versus ad and distribution weights of existing brands in relation to their market share,
R = Repurchase rate based on percentage of those trying who repurchase,
U = Usage rate based on usage frequency of new product as compared to the new product category as a whole, and
K = Judgmental factor based on comparison of S ´ N ´ C ´ R ´ U ´ K with Yankelovich norms. The comparison is with respect to factors such as size and growth of category, new product’s share derived from category expansion versus conversion from existing brand. 63 63

36. Some Issues in Validating Pre-Test Models
Validation does not include products that were withdrawn as a result of model predictions
Pre-test and actual launch are separated in time, often by a year or more
Marketing program as implemented could be different from planned program 19 22 64 64