1. Geosphere Basics
Chapters: 1.2, 14, 15.2

2. Tragedy of the Commons
Commons are natural resources that belong to everyone
Land, water, air, “nature”
Without regulation, these common areas will become exploited. This is called the “Tragedy of the Commons”.
Individuals will do what is in their best interest, but it is often at the downfall of the entire group in the long run.

3. Urban vs. Rural
Urban land: land that is covered mainly with buildings and roads
Rural land: land that contains relatively few people and large areas of open space (includes rangeland, forest land, cropland, parks/preserves, wetlands/mountains/deserts/other)

4. Industrial Revolution
Machinery allowed fewer people to have to be farmers
Better transportation allowed companies to travel farther distances to their customers
Rural area jobs were eliminated
Made urban areas grow quickly during the 20th century

5. Urbanization Problems
Deforestation was required to make urban areas more populated (geosphere__________________________)
Habitat Fragmentation for roads, buildings, parking lots, etc. (geosphere _______________________________)
Infrastructure Problems: Traffic Jams/Substandard Housing
Air/Water Pollution
Urban Sprawl: rapid expansion of
a city into the countryside around the city

6. Urban Sprawl Results Worn out infrastructure Less farmland
Development on lands not suited for building (marginal lands)
Heat islands: increased temperature in a city due to roads and buildings absorbing more heat than vegetation
Affects local weather patterns=increased rainfall

7. Desertification The process by which land in arid or
semiarid areas becomes more desert-like
Happens when land is being farmed, grazed, and deforested faster than it can regenerate
Soil loses its fertility and productivity
Fewer plants hold topsoil in place
PREVENTION: soil-retaining terraces, contour plowing, leaving some vegetation instead of plowing an entire slope, no-till farming, sustainable agriculture, etc.

8. Mining
Chapter 16

9. Important Definitions
Mineral: Naturally occurring, usually inorganic solid that has a characteristic chemical composition, an orderly internal structure, and a characteristic set of physical properties
Ore Minerals: Minerals that are valuable and economical to extract-can be metallic or nonmetallic
Gangue Minerals: minerals that have no commercial value, but are usually collected with ore minerals and must be separated

10. Mineral Uses Different minerals have different uses
EXAMPLES , table 2 pg. 444

11. Subsurface vs. Surface Mining
Subsurface Mining
Room-and-pillar mining: a network of “rooms” are cut into a seam and between the rooms, pillars are left to support the roof
Longwall mining: A machine called a shearer moves back and forth across the face of a coal seam and a conveyor takes the coal out of the mine
Solution mining: Hot water is injected into the ore and dissolves it while compressed air makes bubbles that lift the ore to the surface

13. Subsurface vs. Surface Mining
Open-pit mining: ore is mined layer by layer downward
Solar Evaporation: sea water is placed in shallow ponds and allowed to evaporate, leaving behind salt (sodium chloride) which can be harvested

14. Environmental Impacts of Mining
Abandoned mine clean up
Air and noise pollution
Water contamination
Wildlife displacement
Erosion and sedimentation
Soil degradation
Subsidence: sinking regions of ground from the collapse of parts of an empty mine
Underground mine fires can occur when minerals are exposed to oxygen