1. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
14th Edition
A Study of Interrelationships

2. Outline 12.1 The Need for Planning
12.2 Historical Forces That Shaped Land Use
12.3 Factors That Contribute to Sprawl
12.4 Problems Associated with Unplanned Urban Growth

3. Outline 12.5 Land-Use Planning Principles
12.6 Mechanisms for Implementing Land-Use Plans
12.7 Special Urban Planning Issues
12.8 Federal Government Land-Use Issues

4. 12.1 The Need for Planning
Human development impacts upon all facets of the environment.
While most apparent in urbanized areas, there is literally no place on the globe that does not bear some evidence of the impact of humankind.
Most land-use decisions are still based primarily on economic considerations or short-term needs rather than on unique analysis of the landscape.
Once land has been converted to intensive human use, it is generally unavailable for other uses.

5. 12.2 Historical Forces That Shaped Land Use
Present land use in the United States:
52% - Crops and livestock
44% - Forests and natural areas
4% - Intensive human use
This pattern of land use differs greatly from original conditions experienced by immigrants from New World.
The first U.S. colonists converted landscape to farming, and then to towns and cities.

6. Waterways and Development
Waterways were the primary method of transportation in the early European settlement of North America
This allowed exploration and development of commerce.
Early towns were usually built near water and at transfer points between water systems.
The waterfront became a center of intense industrial activity.
As industrial activity increased in the cities, people began to move from rural to urban centers for the job opportunities these centers presented.

7. Water and Urban Centers

8. The Rural-to-Urban Shift
North America remained essentially rural until industrial growth began in last third of the 1800s.
Cities grew because of:
Industrial Revolution
People migrated from farms to industrial jobs found in cities.
European immigrants
Congregated in cities where jobs were available.
Cultural, social, and artistic opportunities

9. Rural-to-Urban Population Shift

10. Migration from the Central City to the Suburbs
In the early stages of the Industrial Revolution, a lack of control over industry activities led to polluted, undesirable waterways.
As roads and rail transport became more common, many left the waterway areas.
Agricultural land surrounding towns was converted to housing.
Land began to be viewed as a commodity, not as a non-renewable resource to be managed.

11. Characteristics of Suburbs
As cities grew, certain sections within each city began to deteriorate.
Pollution and crowding made cities undesirable places to live.
In the early 1900s, people who could afford to move out of cities began to do so.
% urban population lived in central cities.
% urban population lived in central cities.

12. Characteristics of Suburbs
The convenience of a personal automobile escalated decentralized housing patterns and diminished importance of mass transit.
This led to decreased energy efficiency.
It increased the cost of supplying utility services.

13. Characteristics of Suburbs
Urban sprawl is a pattern of unplanned, low-density housing and commercial development outside of cities.
Land-use practices are fundamental to sustainability. Two practices that have contributed to urban sprawl are:
Zoning ordinances that isolate employment and shopping services away from housing locations.
Low-density planning aimed at creating automobile access to increasing expanses of land.

14. Patterns of Urban Sprawl
Sprawl is typically characterized by:
Excessive land consumption.
Low densities in comparison with older centers.
Lack of choice in ways to travel.
Fragmented open space, wide gaps in development, and a scattered appearance.
Lack of choice in housing types and prices.
Separation of uses into distinct areas.
Repetitive one-story development.
Commercial buildings surrounded by large parking areas.
Lack of public spaces and community centers

15. Patterns of Urban Sprawl
Urban sprawl occurs in three ways:
Development of exclusive, wealthy suburbs adjacent to the city.
Tract development is the construction of similar residential units over large areas.
Ribbon sprawl consists of commercial / industrial buildings lining highways connecting housing developments to the central city.
A megalopolis is a merging of cities into large, urban areas.

16. Types of Urban Sprawl

17. Regional Cities in the United States and Canada

18. 12.3 Factors That Contribute to Sprawl
Lifestyle
Increased wealth of population is reflected in material possessions, particularly the automobile and homes.
A decentralized housing pattern is possible because high rate of automobile ownership allows ease of movement.
Economic
Building on agricultural land is less expensive than to build within established cities.
Tax laws encourage home ownership.

19. 12.3 Factors That Contribute to Sprawl
Planning and Policy
Historically, there was little coordination of effort as to how cities should develop.
Large cities have a huge number of political jurisdictions, so coordination is difficult.
Zoning ordinances prohibit land-use mixing.
Ordinances specify minimum lot and house sizes.
Government subsidizes the development of decentralized cities.
Local governments pay some costs of extending services into new areas; costs are not passed on to builders.

20. 12.4 Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth
Transportation
As cities grew, little thought was given to transportation corridors.
Establishment of new corridors stimulates growth in nearby areas, and the new corridors soon become inadequate.
Reliance on automobiles has required constant road building.
In Los Angeles, 70% of city’s surface area dedicated to automobiles.
The average person in the U.S. travels about 160 miles/week in an automobile.

21. 12.4 Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth
Death of the Central City
Currently less than 10% of people work in the central city.
There is less income to support public services.
Higher Infrastructure and Energy Costs
Extension of municipal services is more costly than supplying services to areas already in the city.

22. 12.4 Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth
Loss of Open Space and Farmland
Oftentimes open space planning is left out of development plans.
Flat, well-drained land is ideal for both farmland and urban development.
Several states have established programs that provide protection to farmers who do not want to sell their land to developers.
These programs may require farmers to put their land in a conservation easement.

23. Loss of Open Space and Farmland

24. 12.4 Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth
Air and Water Pollution Problems
As traffic increases, so does air pollution.
A centralized, efficient public transportation system solves this problem, but it is difficult to achieve with a highly dispersed population.
Large impervious surface areas lead to high runoff and potential flooding.
Low Energy Efficiency
Automobiles are inefficient transportation.
Separation of homes and businesses requires additional driving.
Stop-and-go traffic patterns.
Single-family homes are less efficient than multifamily dwellings.

25. Urban Sprawl Contributes to Air and Water Pollution

26. 12.4 Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth
Floodplain Problems
Many cities are located on floodplains because they were originally established along waterways.
The flat land is attractive to developers but would be better put to use as open space or recreation.
Development increases economic losses.
Many communities have enacted floodplain zoning ordinances.

27. 12.4 Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth
Wetlands Misuse
Wetlands are areas that periodically are covered with water.
Many have been drained, filled, or used as landfills.
U.S. has lost 53% of wetlands since the European immigration began (not including Alaska).
Wetlands play crucial role in reproductive phase of many organisms.
They also provide sediment filtration.

28. 12.4 Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth
Geology and Resource Limitations
Geological status must be considered in land-use decisions.
Building on earthquake-prone faults has led to the loss of life and property.
Building on unstable hillsides and fire-prone areas is also unwise.
Aesthetic Issues
Unpleasant odors
Disagreeable tastes
Annoying sounds
Offensive sights
It is difficult to get complete agreement on what is acceptable and when some aesthetic boundary has been crossed that is unacceptable.

29. 12.5 Land-Use Planning Principles
Land-use planning is a process of evaluating the needs and wants of a population, the land characteristics and value, and various alternative solutions to land uses before changes are made.
Many problems outlined in the previous sections can be avoided with proper land-use planning.
A basic rule should be to make as few changes as possible.

30. 12.5 Land-Use Planning Principles
When changes are needed:
Evaluate and record unique geological, geographic, and biologic features.
Preserve unique cultural or historical features.
Conserve open space and environmental features.
Recognize and calculate the cost of additional changes required to accommodate altered land use.

31. 12.5 Land-Use Planning Principles
Plan for mixed uses in close proximity.
Plan for a variety of transportation options.
Set limits and require managed growth patterns with compact development.
Encourage development in areas with existing infrastructure.

32. Land-Use Planning Principles

33. 12.6 Mechanisms for Implementing Land-Use Plans
Establish State / Regional Planning Agencies
This pattern is more effective than local agencies because political boundaries seldom reflect the geological and biological database used in planning.
A regional approach is more likely to prevent duplication of facilities and lead to greater efficiency.
Restricting Use
Zoning is a land-use regulation that restricts the uses to which land in a region can be put.
Often, planners making zoning decisions represent business or developing interests.

34. Hawaii Land-Use Plan

35. Examples of State Land-Use Planning Legislation

36. Examples of Local Growth Management Actions

37. 12.7 Special Urban Planning Issues
Urban Transportation Planning
Urban transportation planning usually involves four goals:
Conserve energy and land resources.
Provide efficient and inexpensive transportation, particularly to those who are unable to drive.
Provide efficient transportation opportunities to suburban residents.
Reduce urban pollution.
Transportation corridors and parking facilities must be included in any urban transportation plan.

38. 12.7 Special Urban Planning Issues
Mass transit in the U.S. is often underfunded and difficult to establish because:
It is only economical along heavily populated routes.
It is less convenient than the automobile.
It is extremely expensive to build / operate.
It is often crowded and uncomfortable.
The U.S. government encourages personal autos by financing highways, maintaining cheap energy policy, and not funding mass-transit projects (hidden subsidies).

39. Urban Open Space and Recreation Planning
Nearly three-fourths of the North American population lives in urban areas.
Until recently, urban parks were considered an uneconomical use of land.
Facilities not conveniently located near residential areas may be infrequently used.
A new outgrowth of urbanization is the development of urban nature centers.

40. Urban Open Space

41. Redevelopment of Inner-City Areas
Special efforts must be made to revitalize the inner city.
Abandoned industrial and commercial sites remain vacant because they are expensive to clean up and renovate.
Brownfield development matches the degree of cleanup required to the intended use of the site.
Another important focus is remodeling abandoned commercial buildings into shopping centers, cultural facilities, and high-density housing.

42. Smart Growth Urban Planning
Smart growth recognizes benefits of growth.
Advocates emphasize developing “livable” cities and towns.
Smart growth recognizes that quality of environment directly affects quality of life.

43. Smart Growth Urban Planning
Smart Growth Principles:
Mix land uses.
Take advantage of compact building designs.
Create range of housing opportunities and choices.
Create walkable neighborhoods.
Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place.

44. Smart Growth Urban Planning
Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and critical environmental areas.
Strengthen and direct development of existing areas.
Provide a variety of transportation choices.
Make fair, predictable, cost-effective development decisions.
Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions.

45. Smart Growth Urban Planning
One aspect of smart growth is the building of “green buildings.”
Green buildings are built using a standard called Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED).
The guidelines call for using recycled materials, ensuring better ventilation in buildings, reducing water and energy use, and other goals.

46. Smart Growth Urban Planning
Characteristics of high-performance green building are:
Low-water-flow fixtures are installed on faucets.
Buildings’ energy use is tested by an outside expert.
Products used do not contribute to ozone layer depletion.
Occupants have outside views, including natural day lighting of work surfaces.

47. 12.8 Federal Government Land-Use Issues
The U.S. Government owns and manages about 30% of U.S. land.
Several U.S. agencies, including the National Park Service, the Bureau of Land Management, the Forest Service, and the Fish and Wildlife Service, allocate and regulate the lands they control.
These agencies have conflicting roles.

48. 12.8 Federal Government Land-Use Issues
Designation of certain lands as wilderness is a sensitive issue.
The Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act of 1960 divided use of national forests into four categories:
Wildlife habitat preservation
Recreation
Lumbering
Watershed protection

49. 12.8 Federal Government Land-Use Issues
Many people want to use the natural world for recreational purposes because nature can provide challenges lacking in day-to-day life.
Conflicts develop because some activities cannot occur in the same place at the same time.
Groups argue that because they pay taxes, they have a right to use it as they wish.

50. Summary
Waterways served as transportation corridors that allowed for the exploration of new land and for the transport of goods.
Urban centers began as small towns located near water.
Several factors resulted in the shift of the population from rural to urban.
Unregulated industrial development in cities led to degradation of waterfronts and stimulated the development of suburbs.
Many problems have resulted from unplanned growth.

51. Summary
Land-use planning involves gathering data, projecting needs, and developing mechanisms for implementing the plan.
Establishing regional planning agencies, purchasing land or its development rights, and enacting zoning ordinances are ways to implement land-use planning.
Federal governments own and manage large amounts of land, so national policy must be developed.
Often federal policy is a compromise between competing uses and land is managed for multiple uses.