1. The Brain, biology, and the nervous system
Chapter 3

2. Just for fun:
e.com/watch?v=yH 97lImrr0Q&list=RD yH97lImrr0Q#t=32

3. Coloring time!!!!
Before we jump into the lecture we are going to trace and color the brain!
Each student needs to make a colored copy of the brain (we will be doing this a few times fyi.)

4. Just a bit of history here
Phrenology = Franz Gall came up with this well different way to study the human brain. He decided that the best way to learn about the human brain was by using / feeling the bumps on peoples scalps to determine their abilities and traits.
What do you guys think about this?

5. What is going on here…?
Well the first half of this presentation is going to deal with the Brain, and the second half is going to be all about the nervous system! Get ready guys this is going to be a long ride!

6. :

7. Let’s talk about the pieces of the brainstem:

8. Let’s begin with the Brainstem:
The brain stem is an extension of the spinal cord that enters the bottom of the skull and travels upward. Activity in the brain stem is important for:
bodily activities essential to survival, such as changes in heartbeat and breathing,
the focusing of attention;
patterns of arousal (that is sleeping versus waking).
If the brain stem is damaged, a person may lapse into a coma or even die because of its control of functions essential to survival.

10. Medulla :

11. Medulla :
This is a part of the brain stem just above the spinal cord that is less than 1.5 inches in length. Its small size, however, should not mislead you:
it regulates a number of vital processes such as breathing, heart rate, and the diameter of blood vessels, as well as important reflexes such as swallowing, vomiting, salivation, coughing, and sneezing.

12. Medulla :
Damage to the medulla caused by hitting the back of the neck can be fatal.
Large doses of morphine (and other opiates), cocaine, or amphetamines also can severely disrupt activity in the medulla, possibly causing death by interrupting breathing or the beating of the heart.

13. Pons:

14. Pons:
The Pons serves as a message station between several areas of the brain. It helps relay messages from the cortex and the cerebellum. Without the pons, the brain would not be able to function because messages would not be able to be transmitted, or passed along.
It also plays a key role in sleep and dreaming, where REM sleep, or the sleeping state where dreaming is most likely to occur, has been proven to originate here, in the pons.

15. Helps coordinate movements on left and right sides of the body
Pons:
Helps coordinate movements on left and right sides of the body
e.g., postural reflexes which help you maintain balance while standing or moving

16. Reticular Formation:

17. reticular formation:
During the 1940s and 1950s, researchers discovered that a large portion of the brain stem, called the “reticular formation,” was important for alertness and arousal.
Electrical stimulation of the reticular formation of a lightly sleeping cat, for example, caused it to wake up, and electrical stimulation of an awake animal seemed to “energize” it — to make it more alert.

18. reticular formation:
The reticular formation makes up the central core, and extends the entire length, of the brain stem: it runs through the medulla, the pons, into parts of the limbic system, and finally into most areas of the cerebral cortex.
You wake up when your alarm clock goes off because the sound activates your reticular formation, which then activates your cerebral cortex after traveling through lower parts of the brain. 

19. reticular formation:
 If we separate the reticular formation from the rest of the brain, an animal will show brain waves indicating sleep.
If we make a cut farther down, at the point where the brain stem connects to the spinal cord — a cut that leaves the reticular formation in contact with the rest of the brain — normal patterns of sleeping and waking are observed. Thus, it appears that the reticular formation is one major brain area important for causing us to fall asleep and to wake up.

20. reticular formation:
You probably have noticed that, when you begin to get drowsy, getting up and walking around wakes you up. This is because the contraction of your muscles causes sensations in these muscles, which then travel to the reticular formation and activate it. The sensations caused by splashing water onto your face when you are drowsy also activate the reticular formation.
The reticular formation, therefore, seems to be (at least in part) an “energizing system” of the brain. Because of this energizing effect, the reticular formation also is referred to as the reticular activating system.

21. Cerebellum:

22. Cerebellum:
Among many other things, activity in the cerebellum is essential for:
the control of walking movements,
the ability to maintain an upright posture,
fine-muscle coordination in skilled actions (such as juggling objects or shuffling a deck of cards).

23. Cerebellum:
The cerebellum (“little brain”) is a structure that is located at the back of the brain, underlying the occipital and temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex.
Although the cerebellum accounts for approximately 10% of the brain’s volume, it contains over 50% of the total number of neurons in the brain. Historically, the cerebellum has been considered a motor structure, because cerebellar damage leads to impairments in motor control and posture and because the majority of the cerebellum’s outputs are to parts of the motor system.

24. Cerebellum Lesions (damage) to cerebellum
Coordinated, rapid voluntary movements
e.g., playing the piano, kicking, throwing, etc.
Lesions (damage) to cerebellum
jerky, exaggerated movements
difficulty walking
loss of balance
shaking hands

25. Cerebellum:
Look at the picture of this structure, why do you think it is called the little brain?

26. Little brain

29. Just kidding!!!!

30. Forebrain Structures:
Thalamus
Limbic System

31. thalamus
The thalamus is a structure in the middle of the brain. It is located between the cerebral cortex and the midbrain. It works to correlate several important processes, including consciousness, sleep, and sensory interpretation.

32. hypothalamus 
A small portion of the brain, roughly the size of an almond in humans, located just above the brain stem. The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland and also regulates homeostasis (hunger, thirst, body temperature, and the like).

33. Hypothalamus bullet points
Contains nuclei involved in a variety of behaviors
sexual behavior
hunger, thirst
sleep
water and salt balance
body temperature regulation
circadian rhythms
role in hormone secretion

34. Limbic system:

35. Limbic system:
The limbic system is a set of brain structures located on top of the brainstem and buried under the cortex. Limbic system structures are involved in many of our emotions and motivations, particularly those that are related to survival.
Such emotions include fear, anger, and emotions related to sexual behavior. The limbic system is also involved in feelings of pleasure that are related to our survival, such as those experienced from eating and sex.

36. corpus callosum 
The corpus callosum is a thick band of nerve fibers that divides the cerebral cortex lobes into left and right hemispheres. It connects the left and right sides of the brain allowing for communication between both hemispheres.

37. split-brain research
Split-brain surgery, or corpus calloscotomy, is a drastic way of alleviating epileptic seizures, the occurrence of sporadic electrical storms in the brain. The procedure involves severing the corpus callosum, the main bond between the brain’s left and right hemispheres.
After a split-brain surgery the two hemispheres do not exchange information as efficiently as before. This impairment can result in split-brain syndrome, a condition where the separation of the hemispheres affects behavior

38. Split brain
A condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them

41. hippocampus 
The hippocampus is a part of the limbic system. The limbic system is the area in the brain that is associated with memory, emotions, and motivation. The limbic system is located just above the brain stem and below the cortex. The hippocampus itself is highly involved with our memories.

42. Three reasons to care about the hippocampus: memory, depression, estrogen
First , this part of the brain appears to be absolutely necessary for making new memories. If you didn’t have it, you couldn’t live in the present: you’d be stuck in the past of old memories.
Secondly , the hippocampus seems to be involved in severe mental illnesses. In both schizophrenia and some severe depressions, the hippocampus appears to shrink.
Third , the hippocampus is known to be directly affected by estrogen.

43. Damage to the hippocampus
Damage to the hippocampus has been implicated in the memory loss (that can be) associated with Alzheimer’s.

44. Amygdala

45. amygdala
This portion of the brain is your emotional center, it helps you identify emotion from facial expressions. If for whatever reason this piece of the brain gets damaged, the ability to recognize facial expression become difficult if not impossible.

46. longitudinal fissure 
The split which effectively marks the boundary between the left and right hemispheres of the human brain.

47. I am about to give you a short version of what is in the cerebral cortex, then we will get into a little more detail!

48. Cerebral cortex Cerebral Cortex Glial Cells
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres
the body’s ultimate control and information processing center
Glial Cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

49. Cerebral cortex Frontal Lobes Parietal Lobes Occipital Lobes
involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
Parietal Lobes
include the sensory cortex & processes somatic information
Occipital Lobes
include the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field
Temporal Lobes
include the auditory areas

50. Cerebral cortex Motor Cortex Sensory Cortex
area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
Sensory Cortex
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations

51. The cerebral cortex

52. Cerebral cortex
Functional MRI scan shows the visual cortex activated as the subject looks at faces

53. Grab your phones I want you to take a picture of this next slide as we talk about it!

55. Now we are going to color the lobes, label, and define them.

56. frontal lobes 
A region of the cerebral cortex at the front of the brain (lying just behind the forehead) that is necessary for motor control and more complex, high-end functioning like speech, decision making, and judgments, and social interactions.

57. Phineas Gage

58. Parietal Lobe
The area in the brain which plays a major part in touch, pressure and temperature. The parietal lobe would inform you the temperature of a hard boiled egg and would allow you to pick up that egg with just enough pressure to hold it and not crush it.

59. Occipital lobe
The occipital lobe is important to being able to correctly understand what your eyes are seeing. These lobes have to be very fast to process the rapid information that our eyes are sending. Similar to how the temporal lobe makes sense of auditory information, the occipital lobe makes sense of visual information so that we are able to understand it.

60. temporal lobes 
The Temporal Lobe mainly revolves around hearing and selective listening. It receives sensory information such as sounds and speech from the ears. It is also key to being able to comprehend, or understand meaningful speech. In fact, we would not be able to understand someone talking to us, if it wasn't for the temporal lobe. This lobe is special because it makes sense of the all the different sounds and pitches (different types of sound) being transmitted from the sensory receptors of the ears.

61. Cerebral cortex Aphasia Broca’s Area (Disrupts speaking)
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding)
Broca’s Area (Disrupts speaking)
an area of the left frontal lobe that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
Wernicke’s Area (Disrupts understanding)
an area of the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension and expression

62. Broca’s area 
Part of the brain that controls the ability to produce language. Located in the left frontal lobe Broca's area was named after Paul Broca, a neurosurgeon and scientist who in the 1860s first discovered the correlation between speech production and the left frontal lobe.

63. Wernicke’s
Area located in the rear of the left temporal lobe of the brain. It is associated with the ability to recognize and understand spoken language.
It is named for its discoverer, German neurologist and psychologist Carl Wernicke 

66. How we can look at the brain?

67. computerized axial tomography (CT or CAT)
A series of X-Ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body also called CAT Scan.

68. CT scan

69. magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain.

70. electroencephalogram (EEG)
An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface.
These wave are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

71. positron emission tomography (PET)
A visual display of the brain activity that detects were a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.
This allows doctors to see what is happening in real time inside the patients brain.

72. PET Scan

73. Plasticity
Plasticity
the brain’s capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development

74. The surgical removal of an entire cerebral hemisphere
Hemispherectomy
The surgical removal of an entire cerebral hemisphere

76. Hemispheric specialization Take a pick of this!

77. Endocrine System

79. This is the body’s slow chemical communication system.
Endocrine system
This is the body’s slow chemical communication system.
It is a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

80. hormonal system Hormones Pituitary Gland
chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another
Pituitary Gland
under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

81. hormonal system
Oxytocin– stimulates contractions of the uterus during labor and secretion of milk during nursing.
Growth Hormone– stimulates the physical development of bones and muscles.

82. Adrenal [ah-DREEN-el] Glands
hormonal system
Adrenal [ah-DREEN-el] Glands
a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys
secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine which help to arouse the body in times of stress
Cortisol– regulates metabolism and response to stress.

83. Neural and hormonal system
Pancreas Hormones
Insulin– decreases blood sugar
Glucagon– Increases blood sugar
Thyroid Hormone
regulates metabolism and growth
Sex Glands (Gonads)
Female Sex Hormone– (Ovary)
Male Sex Hormone– (Testis)

84. Neural communication Synapse [SIN-aps] Neurotransmitters
junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron, and the dendrite of the receiving neuron
tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft
Neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons
when released by the sending neuron, neuro-transmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether it will generate a neural impulse

85. Myelin [MY-uh-lin] Sheath
Soma = Cell body serves as neuron’s control center.
Dendrite = the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.
Axon - the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages are sent to other neurons or to muscles or glands.
Myelin [MY-uh-lin] Sheath
a layer of fatty cells segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons
enables vastly greater transmission speed of neutral impulses

86. Axon Terminals = Branches at the end of the axon (at the tip they have little buttons on them.)
Synaptic knob = aka terminal button, rounded areas on the end of axon terminals. Which contain sack like structures called synaptic vesicles.

87. Synaptic vesicles = sack like structure found on the knob Neurotransmitters = chemicals suspended in fluid found inside the synaptic vesicles, neurotransmitters transmit messages.
Synapse or Synaptic gap = next to the synaptic knob is the dendrite of another neuron between them is a fluid – filled space called the synapse or synaptic gap. Microscopic fluid – filled space between the synaptic knob of one cell and the dendrites or surface of the next cell that messages are transmitted across.

88. Receptor sites = Instead of an electrical charge, the vesicles at the end of the axon contain the molecules of neurotransmitters, whereas the surface of the dendrite right next to the axon contains special little locks called receptor sites. These locks have a special shape that allows only a particular molecule of neurotransmitter to fit into it, like a key in a lock.

89. Action potential
Action Potential = Happens when a neuron fires, a small electrical charge that works its way from the dendrites to the axon terminals, much as a bit of swallowed food makes its way from your mouth to your stomach.

90. This action potential represents the "on" condition of the neuron
This action potential represents the "on" condition of the neuron. Each action potential is followed by a short recharging known as the refractory period = when a neuron cannot generate another action potential for a little bit. After the refractory period the neuron is charged, at rest, and ready for another action potential this point is called the resting potential.

91. Action potential
Neurons communicate by means of an electrical signal called the Action Potential
Action Potentials are based on movements of ions between the outside and inside of the cell
When an Action Potential occurs, a molecular message is sent to neighboring neurons

92. How do neurotransmitters get across the gap?
Remember the action potential making its way down the axon after the neuron has been stimulated. When that action potential, or electrical charge, reaches the synaptic vesicles, the synaptic vesicles release their neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap. The molecules then float across the synapse and many of them fit themselves into the receptor sites, activating the next cell. It is this activation that stimulates, or releases, the action potential in that cell. It is important to understand that the “next cell” may be a neuron, but it may also be a cell on the muscle or a gland.

93. All-or-none principle
Takes its name from the fact that a neuron always fires with the same intensity. All action potentials are the same strength.
It does not matter if there is strong stimulation or weak stimulation at the cell's dendrites. AS long as there is enough energy to trigger the neuron it will fire with the same intensity.

94. One of the best analogies to a neuron and how it fires is, a toilet
One of the best analogies to a neuron and how it fires is, a toilet. Here are some similarities: You might want to write this down! A toilet has an action potential. When you flush, an "impulse" is sent down the sewer pipe. Like a neuron, a toilet has a refractory period. There is a short delay after flushing when the toilet cannot be flushed again because the tank needs to refill. Like a neuron a toilet has a resting potential. The toilet is "charged" when there is water in the tank and it is capable of being flushed again. Like a neuron a toilet operates on the all-or-none principle it always flushes with the same intensity, no matter how much force you apply to the handle. You are always going to get the same flush!

95. Homework: Define and provide an example for the following terms:
Antagonist
Agonist
Inhibitory
Excitatory

98. The turning ON of a neuron is called excitatory effect.
Now lets talk about how to turn off a neuron, think about it if our neurons only stayed on all the time we would be in pain all the time.
For example if you burned your hand, the pain you feel due to the burn means your neurons are firing and working! But you would continue to feel pain until the burn healed completely. At some point your body “turns off” those neurons allowing your body to heal without all that pain (don’t get me wrong there is still pain) just not as much as there would be if your neurons were “on” all the time.
The turning ON of a neuron is called excitatory effect.
The turning OFF of a neuron is called inhibitory effect.

99. Excitatory effect DANG I burnt my hand it HURTS SO MUCH!!!
Guess what your neurons have “turned on”
Excitatory synapse = Synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to fire.

100. Inhibitory effect
Man this burn looks bad but at least it only stings a little now… It actually stops hurting if I don’t move my hand to much.
Now your neurons have turned off(ish)!!
Inhibitory synapse = synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to stop firing.

101. antagonist
Antagonists is a chemical substance that blocks or reduces a cell’s response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters. Although an antagonist might sound like it has only an inhibitory effect, it is important to remember that if the neurotransmitter that the antagonist affects is inhibitory itself, the result will actually be an increased in the activity of the cell that would normally have been inhibited. The antagonist blocks the inhibitory effect.
Beta blockers are drugs used to control high blood pressure and as the name suggests they serve as antagonist by blocking the effects of the neurotransmitters that stimulate the heart’s contractions. This lowers the persons blood pressure.

102. agonist
Agonists are chemical substances that can mimic or enhance the effects of neurotransmitters on the receptor sites of the next cell, which can result in an increase or decrease in activity of the receiving cell, depending on what the effect of the original neurotransmitter (excitatory or inhibitory) was going to be.
So if the original neurotransmitter was excitatory, the effect of the agonist will be to increase the excitation. If it was inhibitory, the effect of the agonist will be to increase the inhabitation. For example there are drugs that bind to receptors in the heart muscle called beta receptors that act as agonist by increasing the action of the neurotransmitter that stimulates the contractions of certain heart valves.

103. Homework Part one
Who are these people?
Charles Darwin
Michael Gazzaniga
Roger Sperry
Look up these people and: tell me why they are important,