1. Summary on symbol design
Symbols – use of design variables:
Association
Convention
Qualitative or quantitative data
Levels of contrast
visual hierarchy and figure-ground
Other – purpose, medium, cost, political sensitivities

2. Visual Hierarchy
Map's purpose determines which visual aspects of the map should be most important.
Important elements should be most visually prominent and highest in the visual hierarchy.
Base information supports the main message and should be lowest in the visual hierarchy.
Scale: country
Emphasis: vegetation distribution
Scale: forest type
Emphasis: parks

3. Figure-Ground
Provide focus by separating a foreground image from a less distinct background (i.e. feathering edges, centrality, closed form…)

4. Reversible figure ground

5. Good design: well chosen colours and symbols, good contrast and ‘figure-ground’

6. Map Lettering ‘labelling’ - placing descriptive text onto or next to features on a map

7. Lettering
General  rule:   Lettering is an extension of the symbol itself, and should be 'automatically' attached to it in the mind of the map user, both in design and positioning: 'good lettering' is barely noticed

8. 1. Visual Design Variables:
a. Font (= Shape or 'style‘) :
classic / serif (e.g. Times)
sans serif (e.g. Geneva)
decorative (e.g. Joker)
Choice is mostly based on preference ..
… except for some nominal association: e.g historical oldies
                         

9. General Principles of Lettering fonts
Choice of individual fonts
Legibility:     good distinction between letters in the alphabet
Visibility:      good contrast between lettering and background
Aesthetics:    avoid unappealing letter proportions and faces
Don’t use Courier (typewriter) !!

10. b. Form: italic or upright
Italics are reserved for hydrographic features (rivers, lakes, etc.)
Underlining is not generally used

11. c. bold or plain e.g. Vanderhoof Vanderhoof
Bold implies more importance,
but is rarely used alone
another form is
wide / condensed
(little used in mapping)
Rockwell Rockwell Condensed

12. d. Form: UPPER or Lower case
Note: UPPER CASE implies major features
PRINCE GEORGE Prince George
Use UPPER case sparingly;
it is (13%) less readable than lower case due to the information provided by 'ascenders' and 'descenders'

13. Choice of combinations of fonts and form
Consistency: lettering within a class should be the same (e.g. all major rivers)
Contrast:       should be higher between major classes than within a class type
Harmony:     avoid many type faces; use forms instead

14. Colour (hue) : nominal / qualitative .. is used associatively
Blue: hydrography Brown: contours Black: standard Red: important

15. Quantitative Variables : size
Size :  size denotes importance It is most commonly measured in 'points'    
72points  =~ 1”
minimum size = 6 points
Larger size text is associated with larger or more important features. Large lettering should not be overpowering

16. Quantitative Visual Design Variables
b. Tone / chroma (colour): screened lettering for background features (low saturation or gray)

17. Summary of design variables for labeling
Font – legible, visible, aesthetically pleasing
Form – italic, bold, CASE
Colour – blue water, brown contour lines
Size – 18 point, 24 point
Tone/chroma – grey - black, baby blue – dark blue

18. 2. General rules of Positioning
Positioning is an extra visual variable that symbols don't have:       
… it represents a great challenge in computer mapping – as it has no definite fixed position
A> Minimize ambiguity as to what the name refers to
B> Choose minimum interference with other map elements:
lettering is movable (symbols are not)

19. 2. General rules of Positioning
C> Horizontal lettering where possible, except: …if there is no space available (points) or Feature is not horizontal (areas/lines)
Lettering should not be beyond the vertical
… the only exception is 
Contour lines, where the
lettering tops can
'point uphill' to show
terrain form

21. Point symbols
There are 8 possible positions for names. Top right is best overall but try to be consistent

22. Line symbols
A> Follow the orientation of the line (river, road, etc.) B> Find a relatively straight piece to label C> Label above the line, far enough away so descenders don't cross it
Examples from Eduard Imhof

23. Area symbols A> Lettering totally inside the area .
                       B> If too small, label as if a point Name should fit inside with minimum 1.5 letter width on either side
C> Orient lettering to fit area shape, curve as needed
D> Space lettering if area is large, but not > 4 x letter height, and evenly   Serifs are useful in spaced names
Examples from Eduard Imhof

24. Summary - positioning
Point symbols:   horizontal lettering, close to the point, top right preferred Line symbols:     along line and above it, following orientation of line Area symbols:    centred in area, indicating orientation and space

25. Part of a World map – following all the lettering rules
Lettering is like a hockey referee – if he doesn’t make any mistakes, you don’t notice him on the ice