POLLUTION 25-30% of APES EXAM

POLLUTION 25-30% of APES EXAM
Coal ash spill at the Kingston Fossil Plant in eastern Tennessee Coal ash spilled from holding pond due to heavy rains. Spread into Emory River, a headwater of Tennessee River. Water tests showed elevated levels of lead and thallium. 25-30% of APES EXAM

Toxicity and Health Toxin- any substance that is inhaled, ingested or absorbed at sufficient dosages that it damages an organism Toxicity- degree to which it is biologically harmful In order for substance to be harmful take into consideration Dosage over period of time Number of times of exposure Size and/or age of exposed organism Ability of body to detoxify substance Organisms sensitivity to substance Synergistic effect: more than one substance combines to cause a toxic effect that’s greater than any one component

Dose-Response Analysis
Tests toxicity by Exposing organism to toxin at different concentrations and record info. ED50 is dosage of toxin at which 50% show a negative effect of toxin Threshold dose: dosage at which negative effect occurs LD50 is dosage of toxin it takes to kill 50% of test animals Smaller value more toxic it is Poison: has LD50 of 50 mg or less per kg body weight Negative effects could be- stunted development in offspring of pregnant organism, reduced enzyme activity, or onset of hair loss. Dose response curve

Effects of toxins Acute- effect caused by a short exposure to a high level of toxin. Example: snakebite Chronic- results from long-term exposure to low levels of toxin Example: exposure to lead paint in a house Infection- results from pathogen invading body Disease occurs when infection causes change in state of health Example: HIV is a virus that causes the disease AIDS

Five Main Categories of Pathogens
Viruses Bacteria Fungi Protozoa Parasitic worms African Sleeping Sickness- Parasite Influenza virus Tar spot- fungi on Maple Trees Schistosomiasis- Parasitic worm Tuberculosis Bacteria

Pathogens Cause disease Can attack directly
Can attack via a carrier- Vector Spotted fever is a bacteria whose vector is a tick. Risk- degree of likelihood that person will become ill after exposure to toxin or pathogen Risk Assessment- calculating risk Risk Management- Using strategies to reduce amount of risk U.S. Department of Public Health and Public Services

Air Pollution Can be natural or anthropogenic (created by us)
Large scale anthropogenic sources began in Industrial Revolution Stationary Sources- factors or power plants Moving Sources- cars Point Source Pollution- specific location of pollution emissions Non-point Source Pollution- no specific point of release

Criteria Pollutants Identified by Clean Air Act of 1972
Measured in Parts per million (ppm)- when they are in relative abundance Parts per billion (ppb)- when they are in very small amounts Carbon Monoxide (CO) Lead (Pb) Ozone (O3) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Particulate Matter (PM 10 or PM 2.5)

Criteria Air Pollutants: 1) Particulate Matter (PM10) and (PM2.5)
Sources Effects Combustion Forest fires Industrial processes Vehicle exhaust Agriculture Dust, ash, soot, lint, smoke, pollen and spores Can cause respiratory disease or cancer-> depends on: the size of the particle (smaller particles are carried deep into lungs) Most dangerous cigarette smoke and asbestos Haze (reduces visibility)

Criteria Air Pollutants: 2) Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
Sources Effects Mainly from burning coal Metal smelters Industrial boilers Oil refineries Volcanoes 2/3 of sulfur in atmosphere caused by us Reacts with water to form sulfuric acid -> Acid Rain Contributes to respiratory illness & aggravates existing heart and lung diseases.

Criteria Air Pollutants: 3) Carbon monoxide (CO)
 Odorless, colorless, poisonous  the amount of incomplete combustion is decreased by the catalytic converter Sources Effects Incomplete Combustion in - Vehicles - Industry CO has a greater affinity for hemoglobin than O2  headaches, drowsiness, death CO leads to production of ozone

Criteria Air Pollutants: 4) Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
Oxides of nitrogen are formed when combustion occurs at very high temperatures Sources Effects Burning fuels in vehicles and power plants - Precursor of ozone/smog Reacts with water to form nitric acid -> acid rain Contributes to eutrophication - Aggravates respiratory diseases

Criteria Air Pollutants: 6) Lead
Source Effect Smelters Manufacture of lead storage batteries Used to be in gasoline for transportation but was phased out in 1995 Paints Released into atmosphere as a particulate Neurological impairments Seizures Mental Retardation Behavioral disorders Even low doses affect nervous systems of fetuses leading to lower IQ

Criteria Air Pollutant Ozone (O3) in Troposphere
Source Effects In troposphere A secondary pollutant Formed from reaction of nitrogen oxides (NOx), heat, sunlight and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Called a photochemical oxidant (requires light) Photochemical Smog What is a VOC?- They are compounds released as a result of various industrial processes including dry cleaning, use of industrial solvents and propane.

Smog Industrial smog (gray smog) Photochemical smog (brown smog)
Formed from pollutants associated with burning of oil or coal CO, CO2, SO2 are released, they combine with particulate matter in atmosphere to produce smog Photochemical smog (brown smog) Formed on hot sunny days in urban areas NOx reacts with VOCs and ozone to form smog Intensity of sunlight promotes reaction Worst place: Los Angeles, CA

Thermal Inversion- contributes to smog by not letting pollutants escape Occurs in California

Acid Deposition Wet- rain, precipitation Dry- particles (droplets)
Travel with air currents to locations downwind of emissions Dry- particles (droplets) Occurs as a result of SO2 and Nox reacts with water in the atmosphere pH of acid rain is 5.6 Responsible for the following effects Leaching of some minerals from soil Creating a buildup of sulfur and nitrogen in soil Increasing the aluminum concentration in soil to toxic for plants Leaching calcium from needles of conifers Elevating aluminum concentration in lakes to levels toxic to fish Lowering pH of streams, rivers, ponds and lakes lead fish kills Cause human respiratory irritation Damages all types of rocks, including statues, monuments and buildings

Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions react with water vapor in the atmosphere to form acids that return to the surface as either dry or wet deposition

Acid deposition is one of several stressors that interact, contributing to the decline and death of trees. Acid deposition increases soil acidity, causing certain essential mineral ions, such as calcium, to leach out of soil

Acid Rain Effects

How to control air pollution
Reduce electric consumption Better insulate homes and buildings Improve public transportation Clean Air Act: Set of primary standards was established to protect human health Goal is to protect materials, climate, crops, visibility and personal comfort

Laws for Acid Deposition
Clean Air Act (CAA) Led to significant reductions in amounts of sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in air Regulated industrial plants Scrubbers: use chemicals that precipitate the sulfur out of gas Electrostatic precipitator: Use electricity to collect particulate matter not sulfur

Motor Vehicles and Air Pollution
Catalytic converter- oxidizes most of the VOCs and some of the CO that is emitted as car exhaust Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Part of Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 Reduce fuel consumption and emissions Requires vehicles have average 27.5 mpg Limits NOx and SOx emissions

Indoor Air Pollution Air pollutants are usually higher indoors than outdoors World Health Organization (WHO) says indoor air pollutants is responsible for 1.6 million deaths One of the five major environmental risks to human health Developed countries have well sealed buildings with little air exchange Developing- burn wood, dung and crop waste to heat homes and cook food

Three alarming facts about indoor air pollution
Levels of nearly 11 common pollutants are typically 2 to 5 times higher inside buildings (private homes and commercial buildings) and can be as high as 100 times higher in extreme cases. Pollution inside automobiles, especially in areas with heavy traffic, can be up to 18 times higher than outdoors People typically spend 70% to 98% of their time indoors, accelerating indoor pollution

Indoor Air Pollutants Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Tobacco Smoke
Found in carpet, furniture, plastic, oils, paints, adhesives, pesticides and cleaning fluids Even dishwashers release some VOCs when chlorine detergent reacts with leftover foods Carcinogen Tobacco Smoke Radon Gas emitted by uranium undergoing radioactive decay In bedrock Second leading cause of lung cancer Carbon Monoxide (CO) Comes from gas leaks or poor gas combustion devices (cars)

Sick Building Syndrome
Term used when majority of a buildings occupants experience certain symptoms that vary with amount of time spent in building Building-related illness- when signs and symptoms attributed to specific infectious organism (like mold) Legionnaires Disease- caused by bacteria Irritation in eyes, nose and throat Neurological symptoms, headaches, dizziness, memory loss Skin irritation Nausea Change in odor or taste sensitivity

Sources of household air pollution-
Homes may contain higher levels of toxic pollutants than outside air, even near polluted industrial sites.

Thermal Pollution Heat Islands- Urban areas are generally 20 degrees warmer than countryside that surrounds them. Due to Heat absorbing capacity of buildings, concrete and asphalt Industrial and domestic machines directly warm the air Concrete increases water runoff Two ways to reduce Replace dark, heat absorbing surfaces with light colored heat reflecting surfaces Add green spaces (trees)

Urban Heat Island This figure shows how temperature might vary on a summer afternoon. The city stands out as a heat island against the surrounding rural areas

Water Pollution Largest source of water pollution- Agriculture
Second is industrial, third is mining Standing bodies of water (ponds, reservoirs, and lakes) do not recover quickly Lack of water flow prevents pollutants from being diluted Flowing streams can recover from moderate levels of pollutants if pollutant is degradable This stream is contaminated with sewage water

Water Pollution Dealt with by either
Reducing or removing the sources of pollution Treating the water Major Water Pollutants Excess nutrients (nitrogen, phosphate, etc) Organic waste Toxic waste (pesticide, petroleum, heavy metals, acids) Sediments (soil washed with runoff water into streams) Coliform bacteria Invasive species Thermal Pollution Hot comes from industrial facilities where used as coolant Cold comes from dam discharging water from bottom of reservoir

Groundwater Pollution
Difficult to clean because low water flow that is cold and low in oxygen (can’t decompose as quickly)

Urban Runoff Largest single pollutant- organic waste
Fertilizers cause excessive algal growth. Motor oil Heavy metals Pour things down storm drains which may be carried to streams and rivers.

Dead Zones Caused by Eutrophication- nutrient accumulation in bodies of water Causes algae to grow When algae die aerobic bacteria decompose it and in the process consume all of the oxygen in water Hypoxia: low oxygen Anoxia: no oxygen Lack of oxygen causes a dead zone

Red Tide Caused by upwellings or cultural eutrophicaion
When water is nutrient rich causes algae to develop When algae dies it decomposes. Bacteria use oxygen to decompose algae Causes hypoxia and fish die Caused by upwellings or cultural eutrophicaion

Water Quality Tests pH- measure of acidity or alkalinity (normal 6-8)
Hardness- measure concentrations of calcium and magnesium Dissolved oxygen- low levels of dissolved oxygen indicate an inability to sustain life Warm water holds less oxygen than cool Turbidity- density of suspended particles in the water BOD- measure of the rate at which bacteria absorb O2 from water during decomposition.

Wastewater Any water that’s been used by humans
Human sewage Water drained from showers, tubs, sinks, dishwashers and washing machines Water from industrial processes Storm drain water Cholera and typhoid fever caused from human waste entering water source Sewage once was dumped directly into water sources, now we treat it

Sewage Treatment Process
Found that chlorination can cause creation of trihalomethanes (carcinogens) when any organic matter is left in water. Two alternatives is ozonation and UV radiation.

Tertiary Treatment Passing the secondary treated water through series of sand and carbon filters and then further chlorination Can then be deposited back into groundwater Can also reduce phosphorus and nitrates through process of flocculation Adding a chemical that causes the nutrient to clump out of water. Pre-Floc Post-Floc

Effectiveness of types of wastewater treatment
More intense color represents greater concentration of pollutants

Clean Water Act 1972 Used regulatory and non-regulatory tools to protect all surface waters in the United States Sharply reduced direct pollutant discharges into waterways Financed municipal wastewater treatment facilities, and manages polluted runoff. Achieved the broader goal of restoring and maintaining the chemical, physical and biological integrity of the nation’s waters Supported “the protection and propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife, and recreation in and on the water”

Water Quality Legislation
Date Name of Legislation What It Did 1974,1996 Safe Drinking Water Act Established a federal program to monitor and increase the safety of the drinking water supply. It does not apply to wells that supply fewer than 25 people. 1972 Ocean Dumping Act Made it unlawful for any person to dump, or transport for the purpose of dumping, sewage sludge or industrial waste into ocean waters. 1990 Oil Spill Prevention and Liability Act Strengthened EPA’s ability to prevent and respond to catastrophic oil spills. Established a trust fund (financed by a tax on oil), which is available to clean up spills

Solid Waste (Garbage) Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)- heterogeneous mixture composed primarily of paper and paperboard, yard waste, plastics, food waste, metals, materials such as rubber, leather, and textiles, wood and glass. Paper is the largest percentage Nonmunicipal Solid Waste- includes wastes from mining (mostly waste rock), agriculture and industry. Most solid waste from municipal sources

Composition of municipal solid waste

Best Solution for Solid Waste Problem
Composting- allows organic material in solid waste to decompose and put back in soil Pay-As-You-Throw- charge for amount of garbage thrown away Reduce- minimize disposable waste Reuse- refillable bottles, reusing packing materials, clothes, cloth shopping bags Recycle Primary: plastic or aluminum are used to rebuild the same product Aluminum cans Secondary: materials are reused to form new products that are lower quality Old tires recycled to form carpet

U.S. disposal of municipal solid waste

Sanitary Landfills NIMBY- Not in my backyard!!
Restrictions on where can be built Required to dig holes in ground and line them with geomembranes or plastic sheets that are reinforced with 2 feet of clay on bottom and sides Must be frequently covered with soil to control insects, bacteria, rodents and odor. Methane is piped from site to generate electricity Leachate- decomposed material that percolates to bottom Use pipes to collect it and monitor it

Sanitary Landfill Have protective liners of compacted clay and high-density plastic and sophisticated leachate collection systems that minimize environmental problems such as contamination of groundwater. Solid waste is spread in a thin layer, compacted into small sections, then covered with soil

Incinerators Reduces the volume of solid waste
Produces heat that can generate electricity Produce substantially less carbon dioxide than coal burning power plants Waste-to-Energy (WTE) program- Energy released from burning can be used to generate electricity

Mass burn, waste-to-energy incinerator

Hazardous Waste Any waste that poses a danger to human health
Four categories Corrosive waste: waste that corrodes metal Ignitable waste: alcohol or gasoline Reactive waste: chemically unstable and react readily with other compounds Toxic waste: creates health risks when inhale or ingested or when come in contact with skin

Examples of Hazardous Waste
Name Source Effect Dioxins By-product from combustion of chlorine. Medical waste Municipal waste incinerators Iron ore mills Copper smelters Emitted in smoke and settle on plants, soil and bodies of water. Carcinogen Endocrine disrupter- delay fetal development, lead to endometriosis PCBs Industrial chemicals made of carbon, hydrogen and chlorine Cooling fluids Hydraulic fluids Fire retardants Adhesives lubricants 1970s dumped in large quantities into waterways Harm skin, eyes, reproductive and digestive Endocrine disrupters- thyroid gland

Radioactive Waste EPA puts all radioactive wastes into six categories
Nuclear reactor waste: high level Waste from the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel: high level Waste from the mining and processing of uranium ore: high level Radioactive waste from industrial or research industries, including clothing, gloves, tubes, needles, animal carcasses etc: low level Radioactive natural metals: low level

Hazardous Waste Disposal
Injection wells Drilling a hole in ground below water table Surface Impoundments Used for liquid wastes Create shallow, lined pools Landfills This picture is in Hanford Nuclear Reservation in Washington State. It is the main production site for plutonium used in nuclear weapons. Largest and most seriously contaminated site. Radioactive material stored into trenches, pits, tanks, pools and underground cribs. They are started to deteriorate. The picture is of workers pumping 1 million gallons of high level waste.

Hazardous Waste Landfill

Contaminated Waste Sites
Rocky Flats, Colorado U.S. government starting in 1952 for 40 years manufactured components of nuclear weapons, and stainless steel Now area is significantly cleaned up Love Canal, New York Originally a canal that failed and so they made it into a landfill Town was purchased, landfill covered and built schools and homes. 1978 people saw rusting drums sticking out of ground, dying trees and gardens

Love Canal, abandoned Old hazardous waste drums Rocky Flats, Colorado

The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 1976
Encouraged states to develop comprehensive plans to manage nonhazardous industrial solid waste and municipal solid waste; set criteria for municipal solid waste landfills and other solid waste disposal facilities; prohibits open dumping of waste Controlled hazardous waste from time its generated until disposal (cradle to grave) Regulates underground storage tank (UST) program containing hazardous wastes

The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA or Superfund
Created tax on chemical and petroleum industries Allowed Federal authority to respond to hazardous releases Established prohibitions and requirements concerning closed and abandoned waste sites Held industries reliable for hazardous waste Established trust fund to provide for cleanup when no responsible party could be identified

More Laws Date Name What it Did 1976
Toxic Substances Control Act (TOSCA) Gave EPA ability to track industrial chemicals produced or imported to U.S. EPA screens chemicals Can ban any chemical that poses threat 1982 Nuclear Waste Policy Act Federal governments responsibility to provide a better place for permanent disposal of high-level radioactive waste and spent nuclear fuel.

Economic Impacts of Pollution Cost-Benefit Analysis
Estimating the optimum level of pollution cleanup or resource use Determine the following Who or what might be affected by a particular regulation or project Projecting potential outcomes Evaluating alternative actions Establishing who benefits and who is harmed Drawbacks: assigning a monetary cost to good health and ecosystem services

The cost of cleaning up pollution rises with each additional unit removed. Cleanup is affordable, but at some point the cost of additional pollution control is greater than the benefit of the pollution control to society. Figure 23.7 Optimum pollution control. The cost of cleaning up pollution (blue line) rises with each additional unit removed. Cleanup of a certain amount of pollution is affordable, but at some point the cost of additional pollution control is greater than the benefit of the pollution control to society. Where the blue curve intersects with the red curve is a level of optimum pollution control for the pollutant represented. The other two green triangles show where the curves would intersect if the red curve shifted to the left (if some factor lessened the value of pollution control). Question: How does the fact that the cost of pollution control goes up for each additional unit of a pollutant cleaned up relate to the second law of thermodynamics (p. 43)? Fig. 23-7, p. 618

Economic Impact of Pollution Full-Cost Pricing
Using resources more sustainably will require including the harmful environmental and health costs of resource use in the market prices of goods and services External costs: costs of harm to environment and human health associated with its production and use Governments can help to improve and sustain environmental quality by subsidizing environmentally beneficial activities and taxing pollution and waste instead of wages and profits.

Economic Impact of Pollution Marginal Costs
The cost of the additional inputs needed to produce that output. Therefore we never totally clean out all the pollutants because the cost of cleaning out all the pollutants would be too much for any economical benefit

Figure 23.6 Optimum resource use. The cost of mining coal (blue line) from a particular mine rises with each additional unit removed. Mining a certain amount of coal is profitable, but at some point the marginal cost of further mining exceeds the monetary benefits (red line) unless some factor such as scarcity raises the value of the coal remaining in a mine (in which case, the red curve shifts to the right). Where the two curves meet is theoretically the optimum level of resource use. Question: How would the location of the optimum level of resource use shift if the value (and therefore the price) of the coal increased? Mining a certain amount of coal is profitable, but at some point the marginal cost of further mining exceeds the monetary benefits Fig. 23-6, p. 617

Sustainable Cities Figure 23.1
Solutions: some components of more environmentally sustainable economic development favored by ecological and environmental economists. The goal is to get economic systems to put more emphasis on conserving and sustaining the air, water, soil, biodiversity, and other natural resources that sustain all life and all economies. Such a shift toward more efficient resource use, cleaner energy, cleaner production, ecocities (Chapter 22 Core Case Study, p. 588), and natural capital preservation could stimulate economies, create jobs, and be profitable. Question: What are three new types of jobs that could be generated by such an economy? Fig. 23-1, p. 611

Environmentally Sustainable Economy (Eco-Economy)
Economics Environmentally Sustainable Economy (Eco-Economy) Reward (subsidize) environmentally sustainable economic development Penalize (tax and do not subsidize) environmentally harmful economic growth Shift taxes from wages and profits to pollution and waste Use full-cost pricing Sell more services instead of more things Do not deplete or degrade natural capital Live off income from natural capital Reduce poverty Use environmental indicators to measure progress Certify sustainable practices and products Use eco-labels on products Resource Use and Pollution Cut resource use and waste by reducing, reusing, and recycling Figure 23.14 Solutions: principles for shifting to more environmentally sustainable economies, or eco-economies, during this century. Question: Which five of these solutions do you think are the most important? Improve energy efficiency Rely more on renewable solar and geothermal energy Ecology and Population Mimic nature Shift from a nonrenewable carbon-based (fossil fuel) economy to a non-carbon renewable energy economy Preserve biodiversity Repair ecological damage Stabilize human population Fig , p. 630

Environmentally Sustainable Businesses and Careers
Aquaculture Environmental law Biodiversity protection Environmental nanotechnology Fuel cell technology Biofuels Geographic information systems (GIS) Climate change research Conservation biology Geothermal geologist Hydrogen energy Eco-industrial design Marine science Ecotourism management Pollution prevention Reconciliation ecology Energy efficient product design Selling services in place of products Environmental chemistry Solar cell technology Environmental (green) design Figure 23.15 Green careers: some key environmentally sustainable, or eco-friendly, businesses and careers. These businesses are expected to flourish during this century, while environmentally harmful, or sunset, businesses are expected to decline. See the website for this book for more information on some of these environmental careers. Sustainable agriculture Sustainable forestry Environmental economics Waste reduction Environmental education Watershed hydrologist Environmental engineering Water conservation Environmental health Wind energy Fig , p. 630

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