1. Unit 2: The Classical World
Foundations of Western Civilization

2. Persia Unites Many Lands:

3. The Rise of Persia:
The Persians are an Indo-European people that settled in what is today Iran around 1000 B.C.
Along with the Medes, the Persians exploited the regions rich soil & mineral wealth.
Together the Medes & Persian destroyed the Assyrian Empire.

4. The Empire of Cyrus the Great:
Cyrus became Persia’s king in 550 B.C.
Adopted military professionalism from Assyrians blended with steppe cavalry.
Between 550 B.C. & 539 B.C., Cyrus conquered a vast Empire.

6. Unlike the Assyrians, the Persians respected the religions, customs & to an extent, laws of their subject peoples.
Cyrus fell in battle fighting nomads in his eastern territories in 530 B.C. – he was buried in a simple tomb.

7. The Successors of Cyrus:
Cambyses, Cyrus’s son, expanded the empire by conquering Egypt.
Unlike his father, Cambyses persecuted other religions. Following his death in 522 B.C. rebellion spread across the Empire.
Cambyses was succeeded by Darius – a former officer in the Royal Bodyguard – The Ten Thousand Immortals.

8. Darius: Spent first few years of reign putting down revolts.
Returned to Cyrus’s policy of respecting local religions & customs.
Improved administration of the empire:
Established 20 provinces - corresponded to ethnic groups.
Governors – Satraps – installed to administer provinces. Loyalty maintained through inspectors – the “Kings Eyes and Ears.”
Maintained Aramaic as “official” language.
Built the “Royal Road” to ease communication.
Established Postal Service.
Introduced standard weights & measures.

10. Persian Religion:
The “native” Persian religion is Zoroastrianism – named for its prophet/founder – Zoroaster.
Stated that two spiritual armies fought for the possession of men’s souls – The God of Truth & Light Ahura Mazda & the God of Evil & Darkness Ahriman.
All souls would be judged based ethical & moral choices. Believed in “free will.”
Developed ideas of heaven, hell & final judgement that would be adopted by Judaism, Christianity & Islam.

11. Classical Greece:

12. Why Greece Matters:
Why is the history of ancient Greece so important to understand?
Foundation of “Western” Civilization.
Ideas about – philosophy, the sciences, the arts & politics.
Humanism – the belief in the worth & the value of the individual human being.

13. The Greeks were Indo-Europeans who invaded the Greek Peninsula around 1900 B.C.
They were the founders of Western Civilization.

14. The first significant Greek state was Mycenae
The first significant Greek state was Mycenae. This civilization flourished from B.C.
Homer wrote of Mycenae in his epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Both about King Agamemnon’s war against Troy.

15. The warlike Mycenaeans had conquered Greece and Crete
The warlike Mycenaeans had conquered Greece and Crete. They were extending their control across the Aegean Sea.
Mycenae was destroyed by natural disasters and war (invasion by the Dorians) by 1100 B.C.
Greece entered a Dark Age.

17. During this Dark Age many Greeks migrated to Asia Minor to establish the colony of Ionia.

18. The Dark Age ended about 750 B. C
The Dark Age ended about 750 B.C. when new technology (iron working) was introduced and trade revived.
By 800 B.C. the basic institution of Greek Civilization - the polis (city state) - had been established.
Each polis was centered on a hill with a fortified area, known as an acropolis, built on top.

19. Culture Determined by Geography:
Scattered islands & a mountainous interior (limited farm land) =
Isolation/Self-sufficiency
Competitiveness
Suspicious nature
Inquisitiveness
Arrogance?
Naïve/Willful Ignorance?

20. Styles of Government:
The Greek City-States developed differing types of government:
Monarchy – Ruled by king; hereditary.
Aristocracy – Rule by nobility; hereditary, based on ownership of land.
Oligarchy – Rule by a small group; wealth, military power.
Democracy – Rule by citizens; majority rule determined by votes.

21. Sparta & Athens

22. The two most prominent polis were Athens and Sparta.
Due to the rugged nature of the peninsula these city states were isolated from each other and competed fiercely for resources.
Athens and Sparta maintained an intense rivalry.

23. Demographics:
Athens:
Sparta:
Pop: about 150,000 of which approx: 40,000 male citizens.
About 50,000 “aliens.”
More than 100,000 slaves.
About 8,000 Spartiates (adult male citizens) ruled over about 100,000 Helots (slaves) & Perioeci (freemen – artisans, craftsmen, merchants.)

24. Government & Political Organizations:
Began as Monarchy/Aristocracy
Tyrants briefly seized power.
By 461 B.C. a Democracy had evolved.
A very mixed style of government: Contained elements of oligarchy, monarchy, aristocracy and democracy.

25. Two kings – Generals in command of the army with some religious duties.
Five Overseers (ephors) – elected annually to run day to day affairs – could veto rulings made by council or assembly.
Council – 28 men over 60 elected for life & the kings – Acted as judges and proposed laws.
The Assembly – all Spartan males over 30 – supported or vetoed the Council by shouting out votes.
Women & non-citizens excluded.
Elected officials included generals (strategos) and magistrates.
The Assembly was open to all citizens – passed laws & made policy decisions.
The Council of 500 administered decisions made by the Assembly.
Trials included paid juries.
Women & non-citizens excluded from participation.

26. Social Structure: Freemen – all male citizens.
Metics – foreigners, not allowed to own land but could run businesses.
Slaves – captives from war or early on, debtors.
Spartiates – Adult male citizens. Full time professional soldiers.
Perioeci - “Neighbors/Outsiders” freemen but excluded from participating in politics.
Helots – slaves or serfs. Worked the land & gave ½ of all produce to the Spartiates who owned the land.

27. Education:
Boys – Schools taught reading, writing, math, music, poetry & athletics. Ages ranged from 5-18.
Military training from for citizens.
Girls – no formal education.
Metics – not excluded from education.
Boys – Entered military training at 7. Basic reading & writing taught but athletics, military skills, singing & dancing emphasized.
Girls – starting at 7 taught reading, writing, gymnastics, athletics & survival skills.
Helots – no education.

28. Role of Women: Kept at home. Considered property of husbands.
Responsible for domestic chores.
Some influence in religion.
Married at 18 (husband would be 30)
Allowed to participate in athletic events.
Oversaw family property while husband away.
Domestic chores carried out by Helots.
Enjoyed free social life.
Could own property.

29. Cultural Values: Participation in government a civic responsibility.
Believed in their cultural superiority.
Believed in empire building through trade.
Militaristic values – “Come back with your shield or on it.”
Egalitarianism
Frugality – simplicity in lifestyle.

30. Greece & Persia Collide:
The Persian Wars.

31. The Greeks were renown for their sailing abilities and they established many colonies along the Aegean, Mediterranean and Black Seas.

33. As the Greeks spread throughout the Mediterranean they came into contact with the Persian Empire.
The Persians conquered the Ionian Polis in Asia Minor.

34. The Persian Wars:
In 499 B.C. the Ionians tried to revolt against the Persians with the assistance of the Athenian Navy.
The revolt failed and the Persian ruler, Darius, sought revenge against Athens.

35. The Persian Wars can be divided into two main phases:
492 - Darius invades Greece – defeated at Battle of Marathon.
480 – Xerxes (Darius’ son) invades Greece – delayed by Spartans at Thermopylae, defeated at naval battle of Salamis & land battle of Plataea.

36. The Hoplite Experience of Battle.
The Western Way of War:
The Hoplite Experience of Battle.

39. The “linothorax” – layers of leather
or linen glued together.

44. The defeat of the Persian invasions of Greece preserves Western Civilization, preventing it from being snuffed out in its infancy.
Intensifies rivalry between Sparta and Greece.
Opposing alliances (leagues) develop, led by the rival City-States.

45. The Peloponnesian War:
Athens vs. Sparta

46. In 431 B.C. Athens and Sparta went to war against each other.
This was known as the Peloponnesian War.
Characterized by opposing “leagues” of allied city-states – The Delian League led by Athens & the Peloponnesian League led by Sparta.
Sparta dominant on land, Athens at sea.

48. In 431 B.C. the Spartan Army laid siege to Athens.
By 430 B.C. the besieged Athenians were ravaged by a plague.
In 429 B.C. the great Athenian leader and champion of democracy, Pericles, died.

49. In 405 B.C. the Athenian fleet was destroyed by Sparta.
In 404 B.C. the city of Athens was destroyed.
All of Greece was weakened by the long Peloponnesian War.

50. Philosophy, History & the Arts.
Greek Culture:
Philosophy, History & the Arts.

51. Greek Philosophers: The Sophists:
Universe was too complex to be understood.
More important that a person understand and improve themselves.
Mastery of rhetoric (persuasive speaking) is a means of improving oneself.

52. Socrates: A notable critic of the Sophists was Socrates.
All real knowledge already existed within a person.
He taught by using a question-answer method which allowed a deeper examination of the subject & self examination/criticism (Socratic Method)
Also taught his students to question authority. This often got him in trouble – ultimately leading to his trial & execution for “corrupting the youth of Athens” & “impiety.”

53. Plato: Socrates’ most famous student was Plato.
Considered the Greatest Philosopher of Western Civilization.
Fascinated by the concept of reality.
He advocated the theory of Ideal Forms (A higher world of reality)

54. Author of the Republic in which he outlined his ideas of government:
Did not believe in democracy.
Ideal state was one led by a Philosopher-King motivated by wisdom.
This king would be supported by Warriors who were motivated by courage and would control the Masses who were motivated by desire.
Plato also advocate equality for women.

55. Aristotle: Plato established an Academy in Athens.
Most famous student was Aristotle.
Aristotle rejected Plato’s theory of Ideal Forms.
He stressed the importance of the material. (observing and analyzing)
Wrote Politics in which he advocated that the best form of government was a constitutional government.

56. Greek Historians:
The Greeks believed that the study and systematic analysis of past events (History) would be of great value in understanding the present.
Herodotus - “Father of History”
Author of History of the Persian Wars.
This book is considered the first real history book in Western Civilization.
Portrayed these wars as a struggle between enlightened Greek Freedom versus dark Persian Tyranny.

57. Thucydides - “The Greatest Historian of the Ancient World.”
He was an Athenian General who fought in the Peloponnesian War.
Wrote The History of the Peloponnesian War.
Portrayed the war and its politics in purely human terms. (no divine interventions)

58. Art & Architecture:
The Greeks were masters of art & drama depicting an idealized view of humanity.
Statues in marble & vase paintings dominated the art of Classical Greece.
Greek architectural & artistic ideas still influence us.

59. The Sculptures of Phidias:

60. Drama:
Dramatists focused on basic human emotions – love, hate, greed, fear and hubris (pride.)
Sophocles was among the greatest dramatists – The Oedipus Cycle deals with Fate, arrogance & justice. Antigone gives insight into the role of women in Greek society.
Aristophanes was a great comic writer – satirizing Greek politics.

62. Politics:
Solon helped create the first Athenian democracy – outlawed debt slavery, opened the Assembly to all citizens.
Cleisthenes established the Council of 500, broke the power of the aristocracy.
Pericles improved direct democracy, increased number of paid civil servants – further limited power of aristocrats/oligarchs. Established the “Golden Age” of Athens through empire based on trade and public building.

63. Alexander the Great

64. A Kings Ambitions:
Athens & Sparta weakened by Peloponnesian War – Sparta victorious.
359 B.C. – The 23 year old, Philip II, becomes king of Macedonia.
Discovery of gold transformed Macedonia from a poor backwater into a powerful nation.
Philip II planned to make Macedonia center of Hellenistic world.

65. Philip’s Reforms:
Hired the finest minds to reform Macedonia – Aristotle tutored Philip’s son Alexander.
Built a powerful new army – improved on Greek phalanx, added large numbers of missile armed skirmishers and elite cavalry.
Planned to establish Macedonia as the core of a unified Hellenistic empire.

67. Athens & Thebes Stand Against Philip:
The Athenian orator Demosthenes warned the Greeks about Philips ambitions – he was ignored until too late.
Combined Theban/Athenian army defeated at Chaeronea – Alexander (18) commanded the Macedonian Companion Cavalry.

69. Alexander Becomes King:
Philip planned to liberate the Greek cities of Ionia.
Philip was assassinated – Alexander, w/support of the Army became King.

70. Alexander the Great 336-323 B.C.
Alexander believed he was descended from Achilles, hero of the Iliad.
Driven by ambition, he sought to spread Hellenistic culture & conquer Persia.
Alexander & Bucephalus

71. Alexander vs. Darius III:

72. Darius III offered Alexander a third of his empire, Alexander refused.
In ten years Alexander conquered all of the Persian Empire.
Darius, fleeing from Alexander, was murdered near the Caspian sea by one of his Satraps.
The Persian capitals were occupied, treasure distributed to pay the Army.
Persepolis was burned.

74. Obsession & Ruin:
Alexander continued his march east – hoping to find the farthest edge of Asia – crossed the Hindu Kush.
Married Roxana – daughter of a Central Asian king. In the “marriage of East & West” Alexander had hundreds of his men marry Persian & Central Asian women.

76. The Hydaspes & Mutiny:
In 327 B.C. Alexander & his army crossed the Indus into India.
Fought the bloody battle of the Hydaspes. Although a victory, Alexanders army refused to go further east.
After nine years & 11,000 miles the Macedonians turned for home.

77. Death, Division & the Hellenistic Legacy:
Alexander returned to Babylon in the spring of 323 B.C.
Planned to create a unified Hellenistic Empire blending Greek & Persian culture.
He never got the chance – Alexander died a month before his 33rd birthday.
Within two years of his death the empire broke up into the “Successor States.”

79. Greek Culture in the World of Alexander.
A Hellenistic World
Greek Culture in the World of Alexander.

81. The Hellenistic Era was a period of cultural accomplishment in many areas.
The Library at Alexandria was the largest in the ancient world.

82. Hellenistic Sciences:
Aristarchus developed the theory that the earth revolved around the sun.

83. Eratosthenes determined that the earth was round and calculated its circumference.

85. Euclid wrote Elements, a textbook on plane geometry, which was used until modern times.

86. The most famous scientist of this period was Archimedes.
He established the value of Pi.
“Eureka!” – displacement & the Archimedes Principle.
He also invented devices to repel attackers during sieges & in naval warfare.

87. Later Greek Philosophy:
Epicurus founded a school near Athens.
Believed that happiness was the goal of life.
Pursuit of pleasure was the means to achieve this goal.
Pleasure was freedom from worry and emotional turmoil.
To achieve pleasure people had to free themselves from public activity.

88. Stoicism was the philosophy of Zeno.
Also concerned with finding happiness.
Happiness could only be found when people gained an inner peace by living in harmony with the will of god(s).
Did not believe that people had to separate themselves from the public to achieve this.

89. Later Greek Art:
Hellenistic sculptors moved away from the idealism of classical Greek Art to a more realistic and emotional art.