1. TELEVISION Television Progress and Problems Progress and Problems
While radio continued to attract large audiences, by 1952 eyes were turned to the newest medium—television.

2. Television: Progress and Problems

3. Early Inventors in Mechanical Scansion
Paul Nipkow
John L. Baird
Charles Francis Jenkins
Let’s turn to television’s early development which can be divided between early inventors who took the path of mechanical scansion and those who took the path of electrical scansion. And what is scansion? It is the lines on your television that allow us to see an image.

4. Paul Nipkow
Patent for a spinning disk that would become the basis for the first working television system.
Paul Nipkow in 1884 developed a device that would scan a picture. And Nipkow’s scanning disc set off a whole line of research based on mechanical scansion—television systems that required spinning discs.
Of the many inventors and experimenters who worked attempted to perfect Nipkow’s work on mechanical television in the 1920s, three made outstanding progress. One was Herbert E. Ives of Bell Telephone Laboratories. Thus he worked with all the resources of a major corporation.
His work culminated with wire transmissions of still and moving pictures over hundreds of miles. It led to sending over wires secretary of commerce Herbert Hoover’s image form Washington to New York. This generated ideas about the possible future use of the Picturephone.
He also was instrumental in developing a method for relaying television images by coaxial cable and radio, and in inventing a camera that could be used outdoors. It never was commercialized though.

5. John L. Baird Conducted first public demonstration of live TV
More important in TV’s invention is John L. Baird. He is credited with establishing television in Great Britain. He built what would become the world’s first working television set by purchasing an old hatbox and a pair of scissors, some darning needles, a few bicycle light lenses, a used tea chest, and a great deal of sealing wax and glue. Electric batteries were added, transformers, and neon lamps appeared, and at least to his great joy he was able to show the shadow of a little cross transmitted over a few feet.

6. Charles Francis Jenkins
First public demonstration of mechanical scansion in the U.S.
Charles Francis Jenkins would make the first public demonstration of mechanical scansion in the United States. He used wireless to send the image of a photograph of President Harding from Washington to Philadelphia. His system could transmit limited motion, achieving about 60 lines resolution at its best, compared to 525 lines currently used in the United States.
Both Baird and Jenkins started their own companies based on their systems. Baird began broadcasting in London. The British Broadcasting Corporation took over television transmission three years later.
However, mechanical scanning became too problematic. Though many early television experimenters used mechanical devices for both transmitting and receiving later inventors realized that the cathode-ray tube could better display the televised image.

7. Early Inventors in Electronic Scanning
Vladimir Zworykin
Philo Farnsworth
Enter a Russian immigrant and a Utah farm boy who would challenge Baird and Jenkin’s mechanical scanning system.
Their electronic systems would eventually lead to Baird’s defeat at the hands of American corporate giants General Electric and Westinghouse—under the aegis of the Radio Corporation of America.

8. Vladimir Zworykin
Patented the first electronic TV camera tube--the iconoscope
Invented the cathode ray tube (CRT) that would be the core of a receiving unit
David Sarnoff , now head of RCA and NBC, was determined to bring television to the public His vehicle to do that was Vladimir Zworykin, who had patented the first electronic television camera tube, the iconoscope in Sarnoff knew TV’s future lay in electronic, not mechanical scansion.
In 1926 Zworykin invented the kinescope, a cathode ray tube that would be the core of a receiving unit.
Impressed with Zworykin’s assessments of television’s possibilities, Sarnoff arranged for him to join the Westinghouse research unit in When the courts ordered Westinghouse and General Electric to separate from RCA, Zworykin joined the large RCA research team.

9. Philo Farnsworth
Meanwhile, Philo Farnsworth was also building a strong reputation in electronic scansion. He outlined an system of all-electronic television as early as 1922 when he was a high-school student and filed a patent application for his system in That year he transmitted his first picture. San Francisco supporters helped him form Television Laboratories, Inc., which kept him in direct competition with the larger research team at RCA.
Sarnoff and the RCA patent attorneys were aware of Farnsworth’s activities. A long series of patent litigation suits between the two groups had already begun. However, Sarnoff asked Zworykin to visit Farnsworth’s laboratories. Following his visit, Zworykin reported to Sarnoff that that his cathode ray picture tube was much better than Farnsworth’s. But Farnsworth’s dissector camera tube, essential for picture transmission, was far superior to the first crude electronic camera tubes Zworykin was building.
Sarnoff saw no use for Farnsworth invention. However, he offered him $100,000 for his entire enterprise. Farnsworth wanted royalty payments instead. Sarnoff who paid no one royalties was dismayed.
Following numerous patent battles with Zworykin and RCA, the courts ruled that Farnsworth was the “father of electronic television.” The court reasoned that Zworykin’s system lacked a device to produce a scanned electrical. With the court decision Sarnoff was denied total control of TV. He realized he could not succeed in the TV market without Farnsworth’s patents. After months of negotiations, RCA signed an agreement, its first ever, to pay continuing patent royalties to Farnsworth’s company. Let’s look at a video of televisions earliest development.
Patented an all electronic TV system as a high school student in 1922
Filed a patent in 1927 for an all electronic system which allowed a picture with 100- to 150-line definition

10. TV Arrives Screens ranged from 3 to 12 inches TVs cost $135 to $600
FCC set 525 lines as standard
FCC approved 18 stations for commercial operation
Months before Sarnoff’s agreement with Farnsworth, he was preparing to begin regular television broadcasting. On April 20, 1939, he invited about one hundred guests to Radio City to watch RCA’s first broadcast. Ten days later, TV viewers saw the first official broadcast, President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s talk opening the 1939 World’s Fair in New York.
Now I share that historic moment with you.

11. Early TV Entertainment
Feature films of ‘30s and 40s
Short musical films
Film travelogues
Soap operas
Cooking programs
Interview shows
Children’s programs
In the earliest days of TV there was no large backlog of syndicated programs to fill a station’s schedule. Most local stations ran feature films—and these were silent films at that because the motion-picture industry was afraid of television.
Early TV entertainment included travelogues, soap operas, cooking programs, interview shows and children’s programs.
Let’s take a look at the earliest television Southern California’s witnessed.

12. Network Programming CBS (William Paley) Get the biggest stars on radio
Offer stars contracts
they could not refuse
Bill Paley’s philosophy was to get the biggest stars on radio. One of those was Lucille Ball. He did that by offering them contracts they could not refuse. Personal incomes were high at this time. Those earning more than $70,000 or more a year were taxed at 77 percent. It was more advantageous for stars to form their own production companies and incorporate, with themselves as their chief assets, and then sell the companies’ physical assets to CBS for millions plus a share of the profits from future shows. The amount paid by CBS for the assets would be considered a capital gain and taxed at a rate of only 35 percent. Moreover, stars would continue to receive salaries from CBS for their performances.
Speaking of Paley and Lucy, I thought you might enjoy this clip. Paley always said Lucille Ball and Edward R. Murrow were the columns upon which CBS was built. And it has been said nothing has been done in comedy that Lucy did not do. She was the queen of CBS.

13. Network Programming NBC (David Sarnoff)
Invented magazine concept (Sylvester Weaver)
Network would produce
and control program
Network would sell
time within program
to advertisers
Meanwhile, David Sarnoff was technologically driven. He was always looking for the next communications innovation. I believe he would have invented the computer and internet eventually. Sarnoff also championed the magazine concept. That was selling commercial time within a program.

14. Network Programming ABC (Leonard Goldenson)
Entered into negotiations for
merger with
United Paramount Theaters
Committed to
sports programming
Finally, ABC was a fledging network headed by Leonard Goldenson. He entered into negotiations for a merger with United Paramount Theaters. He committed his network to sports programming.

15. Network Programming Dumont
° Hindered by the prohibitive cost of broadcasting, by regulations imposed by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) which restricted the company's growth, and even by the company's partner, Paramount Pictures.
° Unlike CBS and NBC, which reduced their hours of television broadcasting during World War II, DuMont continued full-scale experimental and commercial broadcasts throughout the war.

16. Network Programming Dumont
Despite several innovations in broadcasting and the creation of one of television's biggest stars of the 1950s (Jackie Gleason), the network never found itself on solid financial ground.
Started August 15, 1946 Dissolved August 6, 1956

17. Bad Entertainment Television in the Decade of Shame
Quiz Show Scandals
Payola/Plugola Radio Scandal
Representation of Minorities
Let’s look at programming now. Two issues illustrate why this was a decade of shame. One was exemplified by The $64,000 Question. The other was how minorities were represented on television shows.

18. Bad TV in a Decade of Shame
Quiz Show Scandals
Plugola Scandals
The $64,000 Question, under the sponsorship of Revlon cosmetics, began on CBS on June 7, 1955, and within month it was the most popular program on the air. It supplanted America’s top-rated show, I Love Lucy, and reaped profits for its sponsor.
It was followed by the $64,000 Challenge, Twenty-One and Dotto. Let’s focus on Twenty-One.

19. Quiz Show Scandals
The first news that something was seriously wrong came with the show Dotto which was abruptly cancelled from its CBS morning slot and its NBC evening slot. Several contestants claimed the show was rigged, One wrote to the FCC to complain. Within days some 20 quiz programs left the air in TV’s first major programming scandal.
In 1959 a New York grand jury investigated the matter. The hearings switched to Washington, D.C. where a congressional committee and the FCC intervened.
The public demanded the investigation after a popular winner, Charles Van Doren had admitted complicity in cheating on Twenty-One. He also admitted that he had committed perjury before the New York grand jury.
He said he had been given the answers because the producers thought Herbert Stemple, the current champion, was an unbeatable contestant because he knew too much.
Twenty -One was modeled after the card game pitting two contestants together against each other; the winner was the one who stopped with the higher point total or with 21 points outright. The first show on Sept. 12, 1956 was a dismal failure. The sponsor never wanted to see a repeat of the first show. Thus, the producer and moderator decided to rig the show. Contestants became full partners in the deception. Let’s listen to a little of what happened.

20. Impact of Quiz Show Scandal
Producers forced out of TV and blacklisted
Networks took control of programs away from sponsors
Big-prize quiz programs were scrapped
Canned laughter and applause identified
Amendment to Communications Act
Rigged or deceptive programming punishable by law instead of merely being admissible as possible evidence of unfitness or licenses at renewal time
The scandal had tremendous impacts. Van Doren resigned his teaching post at Columbia University, and he was dropped from his anchor job at the Today Show and fell into public disgrace.
Now,
--producers of rigged programs were forced out of TV
--networks took control of programs away form sponsors
--big prize quiz programs were scrapped
--canned laughter and applause had to be identified
--and an amendment was added to the Communications Act that rigged or deceptive programming was punishable by law instead of merely being admissible as possible evidence of unfitness of licenses at renewal time.

21. Payola and Plugola Dick Clark Alan Freed
The second problem in the Decade of Shame was the Payola and Plugola Scandals. Record manufacturers recognized the importance of the disc jockey in selling records. A few plays of a tune on an important market’s top rock station could spell the difference between wild success and failure. To persuade programmers and disc jockeys that a given record had Top 40 or Top 10 qualities required salesmanship as well as sending the DJ a sample record. But the persuasion soon moved past consideration of the record’s merit to gifts of money, liquor and even women and occasionally drugs. In short, bribery.
A House investigating committee heard testimony form many famous disc jockeys, including Alan Freed and Dick Clarke. Freed’s disclosure that he had freely partaken of payola stopped his career cold, while Dick Clarke’s admission of his widespread and interlocking business interests, which obviously entailed conflict of interest if not outright payola marred his reputation. They were now under the new law of the Communications Act that deceptive programming was punishable by law.
Dick Clark
Alan Freed

22. Minorities on Television
The third issue in this Decade of Shame as far as TV entertainment dealt with racial misrepresentation. Ebony magazine wrote that television by its very nature promised to be a medium free of racial barriers. The promise was broken right from the start. When the popular Amos n Andy moved to television with TV’s first all-black cast—it divided the black community. On one side middle-class blacks winced at the thought of their collective image resting in the hands of two white men whose adult life had been devoted to creating weekly gags about blacks. On the other, blacks in show business saw this as another opportunity for black actors to work. The debate was led by the NAACP. However, in the end it failed to convince America that the show was an enemy of the entire black community.
Even more stereotypical was Beulah, a black woman working as a made for a middle-class white family, and Rochester, the bumptious valet in The Jack Benny Show.
Let’s look at parts of the documentarian Color Adjustment.

23. Operations and Programming

24. Commercial broadcast stations:
Hold a federal (FCC) license for a specific community.
Transmit programs over the air (compare with cable).
Carry commercial messages.
Examples?
Ch. 4 (Fox); Ch. 5 (NBC); Ch. 8 (ABC); Ch. 11 (CBS).

25. Station Functions
Administration
Technical
Programming
Promotion
News
Sales
Traffic
Station Groups
Most stations are owned in groups by large corporations (Ch. 8, Belo, Gannett, Tegna).
A few are “O &O” (owned & operated) by the networks (Ch. 5, NBC; Ch. 11, CBS).

26. FCC limits number of stations one owner can have
FCC limits number of stations one owner can have. Trend is deregulation, allowing more stations to be owned by one owner. TV – company may not own stations reaching more than 39% of U.S. (2017 actions to eliminate this) (Radio – may own up to eight stations in a local market; no national limit. Some say deregulation is needed to make TV/radio more competitive; others fear loss of localism.

27. Broadcast TV Networks Most stations are “affiliates
Broadcast TV Networks Most stations are “affiliates.” They have a contract with network. “Big Three” – ABC, CBS, NBC. Fox became competitive in Affiliation Contracts Conventional: Affiliates receive compensation from networks; programs are free to stations. Affiliates also receive “adjacencies,” or “avails” (slots for local commercials).

28. Compensation = average 5% of station revenue
Compensation = average 5% of station revenue. Compensation arrangements have changed; networks are reducing or eliminating compensation. “Reverse compensation” – affiliates required to pay networks for shows. Clearance Affiliates have the right to reject network programs. About 90% of net programs are “cleared.” (But Ch. 8 did not clear “Saving Private Ryan” for example).

29. “Independents” Most independents (no network) are UHF stations
“Independents” Most independents (no network) are UHF stations. (‘irrelevance’ of UHF) Cable has helped UHF stations compete. Relatively few stations are true independents now, because of startup networks CW and MyNetworkTV. Network Regulation FCC regulates nets thru local affiliates; stations, moreso than networks, are subject to FCC regulation.

30. (Operations and Programming, part 2) Cable Unlike broadcasting, cable systems depend mainly on subscriber fees. A cable system distributes broadcast and cable-only channels to subscribers. Less than half of prime-time viewing is now on broadcast channels. Most cable systems also sell advertising on cable-only channels.

31. Must-carry: FCC says cable “must carry” local TV stations. Unless …
Telecommunications Act of 1996 allows telephone companies to compete with cable.
Basic-Cable Networks
Cable systems are required by law to offer a “basic tier” – local TV stations and public-access channels.
Must-carry: FCC says cable “must carry” local TV stations. Unless …
Station demands payment (“retransmission consent”).
Retransmission consent

32. “Basic cable” channels are those that do not require an extra fee
“Basic cable” channels are those that do not require an extra fee. Examples? Most basic channels are advertiser-supported. Exceptions? Also, cable systems pay a per-subscriber fee to basic-cable channels. Superstations Hybrid of broadcast and cable. WTBS, the first. WGN in Chicago is about the only one left (national vs. local feed)

33. Pay-cable networks Also, called “premium” networks
Pay-cable networks Also, called “premium” networks. Subscriber pays extra. Commercial-free. Cable system and network split proceeds 50/50. Advertising, broadcast and cable Except for direct mail, broadcasting is the largest national advertising medium. Broadcasters must target audiences and advertisers.

34. Mass audience still exists, but in recent years, focus has been on niche content. Niche content focuses on target audiences. Examples? Commercials vs. Program Content Stations/networks must decide how many commercials they can run without losing audience. “Zapping” became a great problem because of digital video recorders (DVR; “TiVo”).

35. Pricing and sale of advertising Advertisers buy based on ratings
Pricing and sale of advertising Advertisers buy based on ratings. They target demographic groups, for example, women, Buys are judged on: Cost per thousand viewers (CPM). Cost per (ratings) point (CPP). Advertisers whose ads don’t achieve CPM/CPP receive “make goods.”

36. Internet Advertising Pop-ups – demand viewer’s attention
Internet Advertising Pop-ups – demand viewer’s attention. Cookies – track users’ on-line movements. Viral marketing – usually videos, passed from user to user. Paywall vs. advertising supported?

37. Operations & Programming, part 3
Programs

38. The most important activity is the selling of audiences (to whom. )
The most important activity is the selling of audiences (to whom?). Viewers and rating points are treated as commodities to be sold. Niche programming Niche services have come into vogue in recent years. Audience targeting, segmentation let advertisers reach viewers they want.

39. Programming must be repeatable (exceptions
Programming must be repeatable (exceptions?) What if programs all had to be local and live? Many TV stations and cable networks depend on the fact that audiences will watch programs over and over. Radio depends on listeners enjoying their favorite songs over and over. For TV, some formats “repeat” better than others. (shows with ‘legs’) Reality programs and dramas don’t do well in reruns, but sitcoms do. Why?

40. The Art and Science of Scheduling Dayparts (radio) – morning drive, midday, afternoon drive, evening. TV – prime time (largest audiences), “access” time (6-7 p.m., most revenue for network affiliates). TV programmers are concerned with “audience flow,” the movement of viewers from one program to another. Remote controls and DVRs make managing audience flow more difficult. Remote control

41. TV programming strategies (examples
TV programming strategies (examples?) Strip programming – everyday, same time. Counter programming – different from competition. Block programming – similar programs scheduled one after the other. Strong lead-in – audience carries over to a newer or weaker show. Hammock – two strong shows surround a newer or weaker show.

42. General theories Least objectionable program – rather than turn off the TV, viewers will watch LOP. Appointment television – viewers seek the most popular programs, whenever they’re scheduled. How much longer? Why so many reality programs? Reality programs popular with programmers because they can be created quickly and inexpensively. Costs less than $500,000/hour; about one-third cost of comedy or drama.

43. Local Programming – Television Local TV programming mostly takes the form of news. Provides valuable community service, but is also profitable. As much as 50% of sales revenue. Local cable Public-access channels let almost anyone be on TV (KETV) Local news inserts in CNN Headline News are common. A few local all-news channels (Austin).

44. Syndicated Programming Programs (TV or radio) that are sold to individual stations in many markets. First-run syndication (“Oprah” “Katie”). Off-network syndication (“How I Met Your Mother” … “Big Bang Theory”). Children’s Programming Cable provides over 60% of hours (Animal Planet, Nickelodeon) Major networks backing away from children’s programming, but FCC requires TV stations to provide three hours per week.

45. Children’s Television Issues Concern over influence of TV led to V-chip in V-chip TV Program Ratings TV-Y, TV-Y7, TV-G, TV-PG, TV-14, TV-MA. Apply to all entertainment programs. Parents may block all programs of a certain rating (example, TV-MA).

46. This eccentric Scottish inventor built the world’s first working television set by purchasing an old hatbox and a pair of scissors, some darning needles, a few bicycle light lenses, a used tea chest, and a great deal of sealing wax and glue
See Chap. 10

47. He was named “the father of electronic television” in the United States
See Chap. 10

48. Hitler was so proud of his contributions to television’s development that he named him “father of television”:
See Chap. 10

49. He invented the iconoscope and kinescope, a cathode-ray tube, the core of a receiving unit for an all-electronic system:
See Chap. 10

50. This network executive was technologically driven
This network executive was technologically driven. While radio was developing, he envisioned television
See Chap. 10

51. This obscure but important story showed the power of television for the first time
See Chap. 10

52. What fostered Edward R. Murrow’s dislike of television ?
See Chap. 10

53. He was a fascinating example who demonstrated the weaknesses of traditional journalistic objectivity, according to David Halberstam:
See Chap. 10

54. The success of 60 Minutes had what far-reaching consequences?
See Chap. 10

55. She became the first female network anchor and was the first TV newswoman to report from Vietnam:
See Chap. 10

56. He is considered the first television president:
See Chap. 10

57. How did John Kennedy’s assassination change television?:
See Chap. 10

58. What broadcast is said to have drawn the greatest reaction to any single program in network history?
See Chap. 10

59. President Bill Clinton called this journalist “the voice of humanity” and Time magazine called this journalist the world’s most influential correspondent since Murrow”:
See Chap. 10