Academic Communication Skills for Commerce

Academic Communication Skills for Commerce

Course Title: Academic Communication Skills for Commerce
Course Code: CSCO 102 Course Lecturer: Mr. A. Mhondera Contact Hours: 2 Hours per week Course details

General Aims To equip students with the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes to enable them to study and to learn effectively, both during their time at university and throughout their subsequent careers; Inculcate in students the need to plan and organize their own learning effectively, manage their time productively, and balance their academic studies with relaxation; Access information from books and other sources effectively;

Cont. Develop the four basic communication skills namely listening, speaking, reading and writing; Increase the students’ confidence and competence in their own communication.

Avenues of communication in commerce
MANY AVENUES OF COMMUNICATION are open to scientists who want to deliver information on their research and results. Vehicles for addressing scientific and general audiences include the following:

Avenues of communication in commerce
Research Communication (Academic) Research journals Research reviews Conference Papers Theses Book chapters Annual conferences Extension and Popular Communication (Professional) Extension manuals Newspaper reports Magazine articles Radio broadcasts Films and videos

Communication Based on Four Language Skills
Two Receptive Skills Two Productive Skills LISTENING READING SPEAKING WRITING

What is Communication? The term 'communication' originates from the Latin word communicare, which means to share or impart. When used as per its function, it means a common ground of understanding. Communication is the process of exchanging of facts, ideas and opinions and a means that individuals or organisations use for sharing meaning and understanding with one another.

Defining Communication
Communication can be defined in many ways. In simple terms communication is: • Information transmitted • A verbal or nonverbal message • A process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behaviour

Defining Communication
Communication is a process, which involves organising, selecting and transmitting symbols in an appropriate way to ensure the listener/reader perceives and recreates in his/her own mind the intended meaning of the communicator. Communication involves the initiation of meaning in the listener/reader, the transmission of information and thousands of probable stimuli.

Communication Mutual understanding is not only based on communication but is also the core of human relations. There can be no mutual understanding without communication; mutual understanding is the core of human relations. The story of man's progress is the story of his progress in communication skills. The degree to which a civilisation or culture progresses is reflected in the state of its communication process.

Scholarly Definition Communication is a conscious or unconscious, intentional or unintentional process in which ideas and feelings are expressed as verbal and/or nonverbal messages that are sent received and understood. Berko, Wolvin and Wolvin Communicating: A Social and Career Focus.

The Nature of Communication
Two-way process: Communication can occur only when there are at least two individuals. one person has to convey some message and another has to receive it. However, the receiver need not necessarily be an individual. Information may be conveyed to a group of persons collectively. For example, in a lecture, the lecturer conveys information to a group of students. If the receiver needs any clarification, he can ask the sender of message immediately, face to face.

Characteristics of communication
Dynamic It is a process that is constantly changing. We react to what others say and do then they react to our reactions and so on

Characteristics of communication
Irreversible Basically once a message has been sent, it cannot be reversed. Once you have said something, you cannot take it back, no matter how many apologies or denials you may give.

Characteristics of Communication
Continuous Intrapersonal communication is the first and most basic level of communication whereby individuals communicate with themselves for purposes of decision making and formulation of self-concept. Whether awake or asleep, communication continues to take place. Individuals ‘talk’ to themselves when awake. Dreams or nightmares when asleep indicate communication is continuous. It only ceases when one’s brain no longer functions.

Cont. Contextual What is appropriate in one context may be inappropriate in a different context. Examples: Prayer meeting at Church Political rally Lecture Date

Barriers to Communication
Planning, preparation and practice of communication will be incomplete and unsuccessful unless one identifies and understands the barriers of communication. These barriers are physical, sociological and psychological obstacles that interfere with the planning, organization, transmission and understanding of the message.

Barriers cont. There are a number of such obstacles that can occur in the process of communication. The natural result of such obstacles or interfering factors is the misunderstanding of the message.

Barriers cont. Gender Culture Religion Age Status Language

The Nature of Communication
Communication is complex. While listening to or reading someone else's message, we often filter what is being said through a screen of our own perceptions. Thus our preconceived notions and opinions become one of the major barriers to communication. There are many Barriers to effective Communication, one major barrier being lack of Listening Skills.

Listening Listening is really where all good communication begins. Misunderstanding what another person is saying is one of the biggest obstacles to communication. Each of us sees the world in a unique way, and we usually assume that everyone sees it the same way we do.

Listening cont. Most people are born with good hearing, but not good listening skills. Listening must be learned. Listening is a mental process requiring effort, and we can learn how to be good listeners.

Four Types of Listening
1. Inactive listening. The definition of this is the old adage, “In one ear and out the other.” You hear the words, but your mind is wandering and no communication is taking place. 2. Selective listening. You hear only what you want to hear. You hear part of the message and immediately begin to formulate your reply or second guess the speaker without waiting for the speaker to finish.

Four Types of Listening(cont.)
3. Active listening. You listen closely to content and intent. What emotional meaning might the speaker be giving you? You try to block out barriers to listening. Most importantly, you are non-judgmental and empathetic. 4. Reflective Listening. This is active listening when you also work to clarify what the speaker is saying and make sure there is mutual understanding.

Why We Don't Listen Well We are busy people. There is much that competes for and distracts our attention, both at university and at home. We may arrive in class in the morning worried about an ill relative at home. Or we may arrive at school with a full agenda in our heads, only to learn that our priorities have been rearranged for us.

Why We Don’t Listen At the end of the day we leave university work full of assignments for the next day, and arrive home unable to turn off the ideas. At home our responsibilities demand attention. And so the cycle goes.

Listening 1. Calling the Subject Dull
TEN BAD LISTENING HABITS 1. Calling the Subject Dull Bad listeners often find a subject too dry and dusty to command their attention and they use this as an excuse to wander off on a mental tangent. The key to good listening is - use. Good listeners are always hunting for something practical or worthwhile to store in the back of their mind to put to work in the months and years ahead. In this entire world there is no such thing as an uninteresting subject, only uninterested people.

2. Criticizing the Speaker
It's the sport of most bad listeners to find fault with the way a speaker looks, acts, and talks. Good listeners pay attention to what is said, not how it is said. They know that the message is ten times as important as the clothing in which it comes garbed. 3. Getting Over stimulated Listening efficiency drops to zero when the listeners react so strongly to one part of the presentation that they miss what follows. Withhold evaluation until comprehension is complete - - hear the speaker out. It is important that we understand the speaker's point of view fully before we accept or reject it.

4. Listening Only For Facts
Good listeners listen for the main ideas in a speech or lecture and use them as connecting threads to give sense and system to the whole. In the end they have more facts appended to those connecting threads than the catalogers who listen only for facts. 5. Trying To Outline Everything Good listeners are flexible. They adapt their note taking to the organizational pattern of the speaker-they may make an outline, they may write a summary, they may list facts and principles -- but whatever they do they are not rigid about it.

6. Faking Attention The pose of chin propped on hand with gaze fixed on speaker does not guarantee good listening. Having adopted this pose, appearing to listen to the speaker, the bad listener takes off on any of a thousand tangents. 7. Tolerating Distraction Poor listeners are easily distracted and may even create disturbances that interfere with their own listening efficiency and that of others. They squirm, talk with their neighbours, or shuffle papers. They make little or no effort to conceal their boredom. Good listeners try to adjust to whatever distractions there are and soon find that they can ignore them. Certainly, they do not distract others.

8. Choosing Only What's Easy
Poor listeners shun listening to serious presentations on radio or television. There is plenty of easy listening available, and this has been their choice. The habit of avoiding even moderately difficult expository presentations can handicap anyone who needs to use listening as a learning tool. 9. Letting Emotion-Laden Words Get In The Way It is a fact that some words carry such an emotional load that they cause some listeners to tune a speaker right out: for example, words such as affirmative action and feminist- these are fighting words to some people. One of the most important studies that can be done would be the identification of the one hundred greatest trouble- making words in the English language.

10. Wasting the Differential Between Speech and Thought Speed
Most people speak at an average rate of 125 words per minute in ordinary conversation. A speaker before an audience slows down to about 100 words per minute. How fast do listeners listen? Or, how many words a minute do people normally think as they listen? An audience of any size will average 400 to 500 words per minute as they listen. Here is a problem. The differential between the speaker at 100 words per minute and the easy thought speed of the listener at 400 or 500 words per minute is a snare and a pitfall. It lures the listener into a false sense of security and breeds mental tangents.

However, with training in listening, the difference between thought speed and speech speed can be made a source of tremendous power. Listeners can hear everything the speaker says and not what s/he omits saying; they can listen between the lines and do some evaluating as the speech progresses. To do this, to exploit this power, good listeners must automatically practice three skills in concentration:

1. Anticipating the next point
1. Anticipating the next point. Good listeners try to anticipate the points a speaker will make in developing a subject. If they guess right, the speaker's words reinforce their guesses. If they guess wrong, they'll have to do some thinking to discover why they and the speaker failed to agree. In either case, their chances of understanding and remembering what was said is nearly double what it would have been if they had simply listened passively.

2. Identifying supporting material.
Good listeners try to identify a speaker's supporting material. After all, a person can't go on making points without giving listeners some of the evidence on which the conclusions are based, and the evidence that has been used to build up the argument should be examined for soundness.

3. Recapitulating. With the tremendous thought speed that everyone has, it is easy to summarize in about five seconds the highlights covered by a speaker in about five minutes. When the speaker stops to take a swallow of water or walks over to the blackboard to write something or even takes a deep breath, the experienced listener makes a mental summary. Half a dozen summaries of the highlights of a fifty-minute talk will easily double the understanding and retention of important points in a talk.

Summary Communication is a process. It involves sharing meaning.
The aim is reach mutual understanding of any concept, examples: -Love -Democracy -Marxist-Lenninist school

Communication is everywhere (ubiquitous).
It is contextual. The focus of this course is to understand the academic context, i.e. how do academics communicate? How do lecturers communicate with students, how do students communicate with lecturers?

It is your responsibility as a student to reach a mutual understanding with your lecturers regarding academic issues through listening, speaking, reading and writing.

Note Taking vs Note Making
Objectives: To identify why it is important to have note-taking skills. To understand the difference between note-taking and note-making. To recognise that there are different ways of taking effective notes. Active listening and active reading mean Active Learning.

Why Take Notes? The Magic 4: Summary. Memory. Revision.
Concentration . These four elements together = Active learning

In detail Summary – helps you to see an overview of an entire topic by the end of it. Memory – aids retention of the information. If you have to double process something i.e. not only listen or read but listen/read and record you are more likely to remember.

Revision – gives you the material to pin your revision on or to guide further reading.
Concentration –means you have to concentrate on what is being said or read, and you are being active, rather than passive. If you are not actively engaged you can be easily distracted.

The Difference Note-taking is when you are reading or hearing something for the first time and you are trying to jot down the key information so you can use it later. (Taken in class). Note-making is when you return to those notes and make further notes on them. This means you annotate them, put things into your own words or summarise them and highlight key points.(After class in your own time).

Information presented in class often contains the central concepts of the course and the material most likely to be included on exams. Yet, students frequently do not realize the importance of note taking and listening.

Taking Notes While many students view notetaking as an activity conducted simply in lectures, solid notetaking skills require preparation and reflection as well. Your class notes can serve as an important tool for reviewing for exams and distilling key concepts. The key is to develop a system that enables you to : review regularly recite (repeating key concepts from class) reflect (connecting class ideas to other notes and readings)

Notetaking and Active Listening
NoteTaking is part of Active Listening. Some people make copious notes, others merely need a few key phrases. The point is- Even strong auditory learners need something to aid their memory. The message is, don’t just sit there listening – record something.

Productive Skills Assessment of students is mainly done through Written Assignments and Oral Presentations therefore, as a student, you need to PRACTICE the skills that help you communicate effectively in Speech or in Writing.

Writing Writing is a skill that is required in many contexts throughout life. to a friend personal diary etc. the aim may be to communicate the events that have happened in your life to someone close to you, or to yourself.

Writing versus Academic Writing
It is expected that in writing about these life events, you will include your personal judgements and evaluations, which may be measured by your feelings and thoughts. The personal stories you write in a diary or to friends can be written down at the moment they enter your mind. There is no need to follow a structure, as prose on the page or the computer screen appears through freely associated ideas.

Academic Writing vs Other Types of Writing
In contrast, academic writing does many of the things that personal writing does not. 1.Some kind of structure is required, such as a beginning, middle, and end. This simple structure is typical of an essay format, as well as other assignment writing tasks, which may not have a clearly articulated structure.

Writing (cont.) Another type of structure, common in university assignments is that of a report, often organised around the identification of problems or difficulties and corresponding solutions. Unlike most essays, a report is divided according to clearly labelled sections, such as: Introduction Discussion Conclusions and Recommendations. Further, unlike an essay, reports allow for bulleted points with respect to the Conclusions and Recommendations sections.

Writing (cont.) 2. Another difference between academic writing and other writing genres is based on the citation of published authors. If you make judgements about something in academic writing, there is an expectation that you will support your opinion by linking it to what a published author has previously written about the issue.

Cont. citing the work of other authors is central to academic writing because it shows you have read the literature, understood the ideas, and have integrated these issues and varying perspectives into the assignment task.

Cont. 3.The very nature of academic writing is also different from many practically-oriented or socially oriented writing tasks. This is because academic writing tasks require you to look beneath the surface for: underlying principles, theories, and concepts that can offer mainstream as well as alternative explanations for common practices, processes, and procedures.

Academic Writing Is the activity of putting down ideas on paper with the view to communicate academic concepts or messages in assignments, tutorials, dissertations and examinations as academics try to prove/disprove certain scholarly positions/views/theories/hypothesis. Is a type of writing used by researchers, educationists and learners in the broad field of academia to facilitate effective communication in various disciplines.

Purpose of writing Writing provides a permanent record of information for future use and reference. Written documents are usually more carefully planned and therefore elaborate, focused and logically sequenced.

Characteristics of Academic Writing
Academic Communication is by nature; 1. Formal: The use of formal language is expected. Colloquialism/slang/street lingo is not accepted. In general, this means you should avoid: a) colloquial words, e.g. stuff, sort of, yeah b) abbreviated forms , e.g. can’t, doesn’t, shouldn’t c) two word verbs, e.g. put off, bring up d) sub-headings, numbering and bullet points in formal essays but these can be used in reports.

Various disciplines have specialised language use and in this regard, writers in a particular field should therefore demonstrate the use of formal academic language in their respective discipline, that is, Planning, Law, Economics, Sociology, Psychology and so on.

Characteristics of Academic Writing
2. Impersonal/ Objective It is not emotional in tone. It takes care to use ‘neutral’ words. It is cautious about the use of the first person ‘I’ and other personal pronouns such as you and we. Use non sexist language like researcher, one Examples: In my opinion, this is a very interesting study. No This is a very interesting study. Yes

objective It is objective rather than personal. Avoid using words such as i,me ,myself ,yours This means one emphasises on information that you want to give and the arguments you want to make ,rather than you. No one wants to know what think or believe. You should show what you have read or studied and how this has led to your various conclusions. Thoughts and beliefs should be based on your lectures reading and research Avoid loaded words /emotive words that might prejudice the reader e.g. ridiculous ,scandalous

cont. 3. Impersonal/ Objective. Examples cont: You can say that… No. One can say that… Yes. It can be said that… Yes. Academic writing is objective rather than subjective because reason and logic take centre stage rather than emotions and one avoids personalising issues by avoiding the use of personal pronouns.

cont 4. Logical The basic principle in academic writing is: X is possible given Z and Y - or ; X follows given the position of Y. This means that in academic writing, reasoning, research and evidence are important. Connections between ideas are logical and connections are made explicit. Use of logical connectives such as therefore, however, for example are necessary.

cont 5. Supported Your writing must be supported –
By established facts By examples By references By logical deduction

Characteristics of academic writing cont
6. Cautious about scope of application It is often believed academic writing is factual as it simply coveys information and facts .However it is now recognised that an important feature of academic writing is cautious language often called hedging. It allows you to make decisions about your stance on a particular subject or the strength of the claims you are making. Never use more than one hedging word per sentence Academic writing is characterised by the use of Hedging devices as writers strive to present a moderate and informed view on a topic as there is always an alternative to a position and therefore nothing is absolute. Careful use is made of: Quantifiers-e.g. most, many, some, a few Adverbs- e.g. usually, possibly, probably, sometimes

6. continued Modal verbs- e.g. may, might, will Examples:
Women are better planners than men. Hyper-inflation led women in Zimbabwe to engage in prostitution. Undergraduate male students at the University of Zimbabwe smoke marijuana.

Characteristics of academic writing cont
7. Accurate There is need for accuracy of information particularly when dealing with statistical data- a ‘wishy-washy’ vague approach is not appreciated, particularly statements such as: “its like, you know…” “… or something like that…”

Accuracy In academic writing you need to be accurate in your use of vocabulary: Choose the correct word: a) meeting/assembly/gathering/conference b) money/cash/currency/capital/finance/funds

Accuracy/Precision Accuracy of information, dates, facts and figures is required in academic writing. Example: A lot of people in Zimbabwe are directly dependant on agriculture. Six million people in Zimbabwe are directly dependant on agriculture.

cont 8. Analytical A thorough discussion of situations, behaviour, actions, cause and effect is expected were abstract ideas are exemplified, simplified, classified and categorised for the benefit of the reader (i.e. lecturer/examiner).

cont 9. Explicit Any assumptions are clearly stated (e.g. ceteris paribus in Economics) so that the reader knows exactly under what assumptions/conditions your argument is proceeding based on. Stages in your are argument are stated and made clear- in creative writing, one may create suspense by with-holding vital information or clues. In academic writing this approach does not work. Clarity of expression and ideas is expected and reasons for conclusions are stated.

9. cont Example: We know that HIV is not spread by mosquitoes because infection is most common in the young adult age group.

Characteristics of academic writing
10. Argumentative Arguments are the cornerstone of academic writing. Anything short of an argument is mere waffling. Argumentation involves clear and logical thinking because as one writes, s/he needs to convince others of the soundness of his/her position/claim(s). It is vital that the argument should be well supported as academic writing is highly inter-textual thus the need to cite different authors to support one’s argument.

Academic Argument Most people think of a verbal dispute or angry exchange of words (and insults) when they hear the word argument. In academia, argument involves the use of clear thinking logic and evidence to convince others of the soundness of one’s opinion or position, especially on a controversial issue. It is defined as making clear to oneself and others the truths one is making claim to (Crussius and Channel,2000).

Definition of academic argument
Academic argument is a formal discussion in which disagreement is expressed. It is constructed according to the specific convention of the academic discipline in which it is presented. An academic argument begins with a statement which is debatable. You as a writer believe in your statement, but other people might not agree with you. One effective way to begin developing and argument is to read critically what others have written on the topic, understand what someone else believes and why they believe ( By so doing, you will be able to handle an argument.

. Academic argument is written as a proof that you understand the material and it is demonstration of your ability to use or apply the material in ways that go beyond what you have read or heard (Gage 1991). So you can critic the material or apply it to something else. You can also define the terms you choose to use and use evidence to prove your argument

Elements of Academic Argument
Academic argument should contain among other elements, thesis statement, evidence, counter argument, objectivity and consider a particular audience. These are the unspoken requirements of any academic argument

Thesis statement is a road map for the essay. It tells the reader what to expect in the essay. directly answers the question asked. A thesis statement is an interpretation of the question. It offers a way to understand the question. makes acclaim that others might dispute is usually a single sentence somewhere in your first paragraph that presents your argument to the reader.

. All the paragraphs within an essay should support a unifying thought or central viewpoint (Wassman and Rinsky 1997). Cleary (1999) frefers to a thesis statement as a; guide which will enable the writer to compose a unified essay which makes a statement. complete sentence stating as precisely as possible what the essay is going to be about

Example of thesis statement
All human systems are interlinked as they affect and are affected by one another. A thesis statement is both provable and specific (Cleary 1999), hence the use of evidence which is covered under A thesis statement summarizes the main point or claim of an essay Thesis statement must be arguable.

2 evidence Evidence is anything that is used to show truth of an assertion. They are reasons derived from research that support a claim. You do not end up by stating your claim. In the last section we stated that a thesis statement should be provable. So, have some evidence to support and prove your thesis. Evidence is used to show the truth of an assertion. To be convincing, evidence must be founded on fact, well reasoned, logical, and stand up against opposing arguments. Include research findings, quotes, experience and the work of other people

Criteria for evidence Make use of the latest evidence.
Evidence must come from a reputable source in terms of experience and reputation Evidence must be replicable: using the same source, the same information should be found. Evidence must be authoritative and factual. Make use of the latest evidence. Without evidence, your argument becomes a simple statement of opinion. That means you have to use supportive details like facts, numbers, illustrations and examples

3 Counterargument Counterargument is an argument offered in opposition to another argument. When you write an academic essay, you create an argument by proposing a thesis and offer some reasoning using evidence that suggests why the thesis is true It is a strategy to strengthen your argument and pre-empting objections to your views. To counter argue, you consider a possible argument against your thesis.

Stages of counterarguement
Counterargument has two stages, that is you turn against your argument to challenge it and then turn back to reaffirm it. The resistance might be through pointing out a different conclusion or identifying a drawback to what you propose or suggest an alternative explanation.

How to make a turn Phrases that are used to show the turn are:
One might object that …. It might seem that …. It is time that …. Admittedly ….

Where to put an arguement
Counterargument can appear anywhere in the essay. There are common places where counterarguments are mostly found: as part of your introduction – before you propose your thesis – it is where the existence of a different view is the motive for your essay; as a section or paragraph just after your introduction in which you lay out the expected reaction; as a quick move within a paragraph where you imagine a counterargument and as a section or paragraph just before the conclusion of your essay. (Adapted from Harvey (1999)

4 objectivity Objectivity in argument means that the main emphasis should be on the information and arguments that you want to give and make rather than on you . The point is to demonstrate what you have studied rather than your thinking or belief. After learning something from lectures, reading, discussion and research, it leads you to give some conclusion. You have to avoid personal bias and present both sides of an issue. Have fewer words that refer to the reader or writer. You need to avoid words like I, me and myself. With referencing, a reader can tell that any idea which is not acknowledged id your own

5 audience In academic circles, your lecturer is your audience, and it is clear that your essays are graded. Your lecturer is an academic audience. So, keep in mind the lecturer’s expectations as you write, and make efforts to meet those expectations. It is true that your lecturer knows a lot better than you do, and you can be tempted to leave out some useful link of information in an essay Express yourself clearly for you to produce a strong argument which earns you a high grade

The writing process Writing is a long and winding process. In managing this process, there are certain steps that you can take every time you begin an assignment. These steps will help to maximise your efforts and make meaning out of the chaos and disorder that often appears when first embarking on any assignment.

The writing process Assignments are not last minute tasks.
• They require thought and planning. • They are activities that allow you to form your own opinions, often guided and based on the literature. • They also require you to turn your opinions into a clearly presented argument. • They require you to make sure your sentences are as clear as possible because written language can be easily misunderstood.

stages The pre-writing stage
There are three things you should do at this stage which are analyzing the question, generating ideas and researching for information. These steps are discussed in detail below. (question analysis, generating ideas, researching note making, summarizing and paraphrasing) 1 Question analysis Before you write, your tutor gives you a specific assignment or some ideas of what to write about. Work out properly in advance what the question is asking for. Looking at the essay question in close detail will help you to identify the topic and ‘directive words’ (Dhann, 2001) or instructional words, which instruct you how to answer the question. Look at these verbs as they will indicate both what the content of your answer should be and the process or method you should adopt to provide that information. Underline them. Spend time thinking about exactly what is being asked of you. Understanding the meaning of these directive words is a vital first step in producing your essay. Below is a list of some terms describing actions you may be asked to undertake in your assessment tasks that we adapted from Bate (1979).

The writing process cont.
Here are some guidelines on how to go about essay writing. 1. Think about the topic It is essential that you interpret the topic correctly. This can be achieved by brainstorming to generate ideas, and then formulating a point of view, even if it is a very rough one. Some people have found that reading around the assignment topic, by looking up some of the key words in their course materials and textbooks or glancing through relevant readings in their study guide, is helpful in familiarising themselves with the question.

The writing process: Key words
Common Key Task Words in Assignments Account for: To give reasons, explain why something has happened. Analyse: To break the subject up into its main ideas, and evaluate them. Assess: To judge the value of a subject critically.

Key words (instruction words)
Comment on: To discuss, explain, and give your opinion on the ideas expressed. Compare: To show the similarities and differences between two or more subjects. Criticise: To make your judgement about the views expressed and support your judgement with evidence.

Key words cont. Define: To give the meaning of a word term, distinguishing it from closely related subjects, sometimes by examples and illustrations. Describe: To give a detailed account of the characteristics of a subject. Discuss: To investigate and present the different aspects of a problem or subject and come to some conclusion.

Key words cont. Evaluate: To appraise or estimate the worth of something, to some extent an explained personal opinion. Examine: To inquire into, and consider a problem carefully. Explain: To account for a subject’s character, causes, results, implications, etc., by clearly stating and interpreting the relevant details.

Key words Illustrate: To explain or clarify a problem using concrete examples, diagrams, or figures. Integrate: To draw together in a logical related way two or more subjects not previously related. Interpret: To explain the meaning of something, to make it clear and explicit, and to evaluate it in terms of your own knowledge.

Key words Justify: To provide the reasons for your conclusions or for the statement made in the question. Outline: To give the main features or general principles of a subject leaving out minor details. Prove: To show the truth of a statement by argument, experiment, or test.

Key words Relate: To establish the connection between one thing and another. Review: To survey and critically examine a subject. State: To describe the subject in precise terms, or set down an exact meaning. Summarise: To make a concise account of the main ideas of a subject or argument, omitting explanatory details and examples.

2 Generating ideas 2 In order to have a starting point in writing your essay you have to adopt a strategy to generate ideas. Brainstorming, clustering and asking questions are some of the strategies that you can use which we briefly look at below. Brainstorming is a way of associating ideas and stimulating thinking. To brainstorm, start with a word or phrase and let your thoughts go in whatever direction they will. For a set period of time, do not attempt to think logically but write a list of ideas as quickly as possible, putting down whatever comes to your mind without looking back or organizing. After the set time is up, look over what you have listed to see if any of the ideas are related and can be grouped. You can use brainstorming to focus on a particular topic or to develop more examples or ideas for your essay in progress.

. Clustering is making a visual map of your ideas. It frees you from following a strictly linear sequence, thus it may allow you to think more creatively and make new associations. To use this technique, begin with your topic circled in the middle of a sheet of paper. Then, draw a line out from the circle and write ideas associated with it. When you have finished, study your map to find new associations about your topic and to see the relationship of ideas. When newspaper reporters write articles, they try to answer the following questions in the first sentence of the report: who, what, when, where, why and sometimes how. You can use the same questions to generate material for your writing. Asking these questions allows you to see your topic from different points of view and may help to clarify your position on the topic. To use this technique, write out as many WH questions as you can. Then answer them as fully as you can

The writing process cont.
2.Research topic Start your research by reading your study guide, text book, and lecture notes (if lectures are available). Then look in the library, or access the online catalogue, to see if there are other useful materials, but only look at information relevant to the topic. However, to do well in an assignment, it is not always necessary to have references outside your course materials. Sometimes, course co-ordinators may specify the minimum number of references expected in the assignment instructions. Note that you will be marked on what you write, not what you read. So try to look at everything you read in terms of whether it is worthy of summarising on paper. Simply writing something down in your own words will help clarify your understanding of the topic.

Note making Note- making
The object of research is to make notes for your essay. As you search for information, you will make notes from a variety of sources, including tutorials, books, and the Internet. Making good notes is about identifying and selecting relevant information. Some students find it helpful to work with others and to exchange notes and discuss their subject. This is a good idea as it enables you to exchange and share ideas

Summarizing Buckley (2004) defines summarizing as reducing text to one‐third or one‐quarter its original size, clearly articulating the author’s meaning, and retaining main ideas. Hacker (2008; 62) explains that summarizing involves stating a work’s thesis and main ideas “simply, briefly, and accurately”. In short, a summary is a shortened version of a text. It contains the main points in the text and is written in your own words. It is a mixture of reducing a long text to a short text and selecting relevant information. In academic essay writing, you can use summarization for purposes such as to: convey a general idea; present only necessary information; set up quoted material; provide support or add credibility; establish background for your argument/thesis and offer an overview of a topic. The following stages may be useful to you as you try to summarize texts:

Stages in summarizing a text
Read and understand the text carefully. Think about your purpose for summarising, for example, are you summarising to support your points or are you summarising so that you can criticize the work before you introduce your main points? Select the relevant information. This depends on your purpose. Find the main ideas deleting most details and examples, unimportant information, anecdotes, examples, illustrations, data etc. Reduce complex sentences to simple sentences, simple sentences to phrases, phrases to single words. Rewrite the main ideas in complete sentences. Combine your notes into a piece of continuous writing. Use conjunctions and adverbs such as 'therefore', 'however', 'although', 'since', to show the connections between the ideas. . NB You should always remember though that a summary must remain faithful to the original source’s meaning and emphasis. Avoid giving your own opinions. Instead, maintain a neutral tone as you convey the view expressed in the original

paraphrasing Paraphrasing is about restating a passage in your own words, often as an alternative to using a direct quotation. In the case of your university essays, you will employ both paraphrasing and summarizing techniques to integrate evidence from previous writing into your own work.

DRAFTING STAGE After gathering your data, the next stage is drafting your essay. This stage involves planning, writing the first draft, editing, proof reading and writing the final draft. We discuss these processes in the following sections

The writing process 3. Plan your essay Summarising and paraphrasing Now that you have made notes and summaries on the essay topic, you should be in a much better position to decide on the type of position or argument you are going to back up or argue in your essay. With your argument in mind, write down the main points that support it. Make sure they are in complete sentences, and arrange them in the order that best supports your stance. These sentences can function as an essay plan. Each sentence represents a paragraph in your essay.

Writing as a process 4.Write your essay i) Start with getting your ideas down on paper. After the first draft, you can work on refining them. If you have already made summaries and notes, the process of writing your essay may be easier. ii)Try writing some headings that are relevant to the essay topic – perhaps they summarise each of the main points you want to make – or perhaps they are just words that have some relevance to the topic. Under each heading start summarising information from one book or study guide reading.

4. cont. iii)Suspend the need to connect your writing to other readings or parts of the essay. Just write. Trying to control the way your essay will look and its structure early on can waste time because, as you write more and read more, you end up developing groups of information that you can link together due to similar features they have in common. iv)Uncertainty at the beginning is perfectly acceptable and normal. Once you are more familiar with the issues, it becomes easier to work out the main themes or sections and even the order to place them. What is important though is writing down information in your own words, so that you have something to show at the end of your reading and analysis.

Writing process 5.Revise your essay Look over your essay to make sure that you have answered the essay question (reviewing. Have you stuck to the topic? Have you left out anything vital? You may have to revise your essay several times before it effectively addresses the topic and question. Reviewing What is reviewed is structure and content. The process of reviewing entail checking what you have written; reading your writing silently to yourself or aloud; looking for places where you can add more information and checking to see if you have any unnecessary information. Reviewing your work is an essential step in the production of a good essay. The first completed draft of an assignment will never be good enough to submit.

. It is important to review your work and to check the content making sure that you have met the assessment requirements. Your introduction clearly introduces your work and also the topic. The ideas are presented in a logical order. The ideas are supported by evidence. Your conclusions follow on from the ideas and evidence that you have presented. Your work is based on a good range of relevant and up-to-date references. If time permits, it is a good idea to leave a piece of work for a day or two and then come back to it. This will help you to see new ways to improve the work

5. cont Try to leave yourself at least 24 hours between finishing your first draft and revisions. This will allow you time to distance yourself from the topic and reflect on it with a critical eye. It is also really useful if you can access someone independent who is not doing the course to read your assignment to see if it makes sense. If they understand it, then your marker should understand it. Take note of anything this external person does not understand, because it may suggest that you need to clarify and explain details further. Providing such extra detail can only reinforce what you know and understand to the marker.

Writing process 5. Write 2nd/3rd and FINAL draft

Writing process 6.Edit your essay
You should check for errors (punctuation, spelling, grammar), bad sentence structure, jargon, slang etc. Is your presentation acceptable? Can it be improved? Is the referencing correct?

Editing: Spelling British American Colour Labour Theatre Centre Fibre
Specialise Realise Equalise Color Labor Theater Center Fiber Specialize Realize Equalize

Editing: Spelling Analogue Catalogue Dialogue Equalling Kidnapping
Traveller Analog Catalog Dialog Equaling Kidnaping Traveler

Editing: Spelling Encyclopaedia Gynaecologist Anaesthesia Programme
Defence Pretence Encyclopedia Gynecologist Anesthesia Program Defense Pretense

Editing: Punctuation The meaning of a statement can be distorted as in the example below: Truly I say to you, today you will be with me in paradise. Truly I say to you today, you will be with me in paradise.

Academic writing: Paragraphing
References Sullivan,K Paragraph Practice. 7th Edition, U.S.A. Macmillan Publishing Company. University of New England, Paragraphs: Academic Writing. Available on [Accessed 13 August 2013].

Paragraphing Paragraphs represent the basic unit of essay writing-one idea , one paragraph. Clear communication depends on good paragraphing.

Paragraphing 1. What is a paragraph? A paragraph is a sentence or group of sentences expressing one central/main idea. It is complete in itself but is part of a unified whole that effectively communicates its message. A good paragraph is unified, coherent and adequately developed.

Paragraphing 2. How long is a paragraph? A paragraph should neither be so short that the subject of the paragraph is under developed and insufficiently explained, nor so long that it tends to break down into too many sub-topics that would be better organised into separate paragraphs. NB: The length of a paragraph varies according to place and purpose. Newspapers, novels, textbooks and essays each have particular purposes and use paragraphs accordingly.

Paragraphing 3. What is the structure of a paragraph?
A paragraph consists of a topic sentence, a number of support sentences and a concluding sentence. The topic sentence In most cases, the first sentence of a paragraph is the topic sentence. The topic sentence tells you what the paragraph will be about. From a good topic sentence, you should be able to predict the content of the paragraph.

Topic sentence: Example
Today’s university student must cope with many different influences. The expectation is that the paragraph is going to focus on many different influences students must cope with. The main idea of the paragraph is the different influences.

Paragraphing cont. The support sentences
The topic sentence is followed by the support sentences. Support sentences expand on the topic sentence. The material in the support sentences should be presented in a systematic way. Order of importance, chronological order, order of operations or space order are most frequently used.

Supporting sentences: Example
Influences for good or bad come from peers while parents and the university are on-going strong influences demanding success at his/her academic studies. A student can also find his/her time too short as he/she tries to pack many activities into the day. The supporting sentences then itemise the main idea of different influences into peer pressure, academic demands and time constraints.

Paragraphing cont. The concluding sentence
The concluding sentence summarises the main point of the paragraph. It often re-states the idea in the topic sentence using different words. Not all paragraphs have a concluding sentence.

Concluding sentence: Example
Like it or not, the student must learn to juggle all these demands in their variety. The main idea of different influences is rounded off in the concluding sentence a slightly different way.

Full example Today’s university student must cope with many different influences. Influences for good or bad come from peers while parents and the university are on-going strong influences demanding success at his/her academic studies. A student can also find his/her time too short as he/she tries to pack many activities into the day. Like it or not, the student must learn to juggle all these demands in their variety.

Paragraph transitions
To present a clear, unified train of thought to your readers(lecturers), you must make sure each paragraph follows the one before it and leads to the one after it through clear logical transitions.

Example Today’s university student must cope with many different influences. Influences for good or bad come from peers while parents and the university are on-going strong influences demanding success at his/her academic studies. A student can also find his/her time too short as he/she tries to pack many activities into the day. Like it or not, the student must learn to juggle all these demands in their variety. Consequently, the university student has to find ways to cope with these various demands.

Paragraph transitions
Consequently, the university student has to find ways to cope with these various demands. The sentences that follow must support the idea of coping. At the same time, note that the preceding paragraph and the one that follows are united by use of a conjunctive adverb or simply , a conjunction consequently.

Conjunctive adverbs and Transitional phrases
Accordingly Also Anyway Besides Certainly Consequently Finally Furthermore Hence However Incidentally Indeed Instead Likewise Meanwhile Moreover Nevertheless now otherwise Similarly Still

Conjunctions/ Transitional devices
Connections can be made between sentences and between paragraphs by transitional words/ conjunctions and phrases to indicate change, comparison, or agreement. What is important is to use conjunctions correctly as you link ideas and paragraphs together in a clear and logical way. The idea is not to memorise these conjunctions and use them haphazardly to show that you know them, but to communicate ideas in a way in which the reader is able to make sense of your argument. NB. Some devices/conjunctions can be used for more than one function.

Transitional devices/conjunctions
Addition Comparison Cause and Effect Again, also, and then, first, second, next furthermore, in addition to, finally, last, lastly. Also, in the same way, likewise, similarly. As a result, consequently, in the end, subsequently, thereafter.

Conjunctions cont. Contrast
Although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite, even so, even though, however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, regardless, still.

conjunctions Emphasis Example or Illustration
Certainly, indeed, in fact, of course As an illustration, to illustrate, for example, for instance, in fact, in other words, that is, specifically.

cont Summary Time sequence
All in all, altogether, as has been stated, finally, in brief, in conclusion, in short, on the whole, in summary, to summarise. After, again, also and then, before, besides, earlier, eventually, finally, meanwhile, since, simultaneously, still, subsequently, thereafter.

Review of paragraphing
As you build upon each paragraph developing into an essay, keep the following in mind: Unity and Coherence- your paragraph should all be about the same idea, without wandering around discussing many things. You should be as coherent as possible, using simple language instead of : This essay makes a hortatory exposition…

Review Development – make sure your topic sentence is adequately discussed in the paragraph. While it is possible to have a one-sentence paragraph, you will need support sentences to develop the topic. Use facts, statistics and details. Cite what other people have said about the topic. As you write, define terms, explain similarities and differences and describe causes and effects.

Review Transitions/conjunctions- you can use words and phrases to alert your readers(lecturers) and let them know what’s going on in your paragraphs (and essay). Transition words and sentences help your ideas ‘flow’ from one paragraph to another with words such as, to add on, another point is, nevertheless, however etc.

Introductions and Conclusions
Most lecturers are able to judge an assignment by reading the introduction and conclusion. If the two are at variance, chances are the assignment has not been well planned and argued. There is need to think about how to introduce your essay, particularly what not to say.

Introductions Engage your reader(lecturer) on an academic level.
Demonstrate your understanding of the question, issues and views as well as your line of argument as early as possible. Avoid formulaic and fairytale introductions such as: Once upon a time… It was on a Monday… The sun was shining and the day was warm …

Introductions Avoid being apologetic in the intro or any part of the essay: Although I am not an expert in Real Estate Management, I would like to argue that… I am sorry to argue that…

Conclusions Write a concluding paragraph that clearly signals you have come to the end of your argument. The lecturer should not look for any ‘missing’ papers as your essay ‘feels’ rather incomplete. For essays, the conclusion should be a concluding paragraph, not a concluding page. It should summarise your argument. The conclusion should be a logical end to the argument presented, not the complete opposite of what you have argued.

Conclusions Though there are some lecturers who demand more innovative conclusions, it is still effective to end with the following: To conclude… In conclusion… To draw the argument to an end…

Assignment Name Reg No. Programme Lecturer Course Topic Due Date

Citing and Referencing
The sources of information you can document in university assignments are typically those from an authority. In an academic setting, an authority is usually someone who has been the author of published material. This material may come in the form of…… • Books •Journal articles • Published reports

Citing and Referencing (cont.)
This kind of information is useful in that it provides evidence, which may be in the form of – theoretical ideas, critical evaluations, research findings, and scholarly opinions - to back up the points you are making.

Citing sources There is therefore need to demonstrate evidence of your literature exploration by including authors you have read in your writing and mentioning their points of view. This technique of referring to authors in your writing is often termed citing, documenting, or in-text referencing.

Citing (cont.) Example In the body of a sentence:
According to Masey University (2006), an Agriculture student should be armed with the sound theoretical and practical knowledge in agriculture. In brackets An Agriculture student should be armed with the sound theoretical and practical knowledge in agriculture (Masey University, 2006).

Cont. To avoid relying on the same verbs when introducing authors into your sentence, as in the case of “McDonald (1992) says that…” or “Anderson (2003) states that…”, a list of verbs is provided to add variety to your sentence embedded citations. agrees; asserts that; believes claims; comments; concedes that; challenges; concludes; compares

Citation cont. defines; describes examines; explains; explores; echoes
feels; focuses on; goes further; holds that insists; includes; identifies

Language Simple and direct language
Always choose the simplest way of saying something. Choose a simple word rather than a difficult one, a concrete word in preference to an abstract one, a familiar word instead of a rare one. Complex, hard-to understand sentences are rarely good sentences. Good scientific writing communicates in simple terms, even though the subject may be complicated. Repeated use of unnecessarily difficult, abstract words and phrases makes the subject hard to understand.

Referencing What is referencing?
Referencing is a standardised way of acknowledging the sources of information and ideas that you have used in your document. Why reference? Referencing is important to avoid plagiarism, to verify quotations and to enable readers to follow up what you have written and locate the cited author’s work. Types of referencing Intext and end of text referencing

In text referencing Quoting is when you take exact words of the author and insert them into your piece of writing. You should always quote accurately and use quotation marks around your quote e.g. “Communication is the process of sharing meaning between the sender and the receiver (Sen, 2004, p. 100). If you want to omit unnecessary words indicate with an ellipsis (the three dots…) e.g. “Communication ….has been investigated over and over to establish the patterns of non-verbal behaviour” (Amos and Amos, 2010, p.20).

paraphrasing Paraphrasing, this is when you take the ideas, arguments, facts, thoughts of another author and rephrase them in your own words. Each instance of paraphrasing must be referenced e.g. Communication is the encoding and decoding of information (Amos and Amos, 2010). According to Amos and Amos (2010) Communication is the encoding and decoding of information

summarizing The condensing of the source presenting the main idea only. It helps the writer to record a passage of any length and explain the main ideas. The writer would remind their readers that they are summarizing someone’s ideas by using phrases like, the author goes on to say…………….. The article further states that, …….

Referencing Styles There are many different styles of Referencing which are specific to a Discipline, Faculty or University. Some of these styles are: American Psychiatrist Association-APA Harvard Modern Languages Association For Arts at the University of Zimbabwe, focus is on the APA system.

APA referencing guide Academic conventions and copyright law require that you acknowledge when you use the ideas of others. In most cases, this means stating which book or journal article is the source of an idea or quotation.

Referencing (cont.) Journal articles
Huffman, LM. 1996, ‘Processing whey protein for use as a food ingredient’, Food Technology, vol. 50, no. 2, pp

Cont. Daniel, TT 2009, 'Learning from simpler times', Risk Management, vol. 56, no. 1, pp ,Available on < 19 N0vember 2012]. For an article retrieved from a database, it is sufficient to give the URL of the database site.

List of References At the end of your essay, place a list of the references you have cited in the text. Arrange this in alphabetical order of authors' surnames, and chronologically (earliest publication date first) for each author, where more than one work by that author is cited. The author's surname is placed first, followed by initials or first name, and then the year of publication is given.

List of References If the list contains more than one item published by the same author in the same year, add lower case letters immediately after the year to distinguish them (e.g. 1983a). These are ordered alphabetically by title disregarding any initial articles (a, an or the).

References A reference list is defined as a list of resources actually used and cited by you, the writer, in any submission; this is the preferred resource list in APA Style. The Reference List begins a new page. Reference List entries should be indented five to seven spaces on the second and subsequent lines of the Reference List for every entry - a hanging indent is the preferred style. (i.e. entries should begin flush left, and the second and subsequent lines should be indented). Arrange entries in alphabetical order by the surname of the first author.

Books (print and online)
The details required, in order, are: Name(s) of author(s), editor(s) as (Eds), compiler(s) or the institution responsible Date of publication in parenthesis. ( ). Title of publication and Subtitle if any (all titles must be italicised). Edition in parenthesis. (if other than first).

Cont. Page numbers preceded by the abbreviation for pages pp. contained within the edition parenthesis ( ). Place of publication (followed by a colon) : Publisher - when the author and publisher are identical, use the word Author as the name of the publisher.

Two Authors Bernstein, D. K., & Tiegerman, E. (1989). Language and communication disorders in children (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Merill.

Institution as Author American Psychiatric Association. (2001). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.). (1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.

Critical Thinking Another defining feature of academic writing is evidence of some critical thinking. Although being critical is one of the most difficult and elusive aspects of academic writing, but it is a feature that can gain high rewards. Indeed critiquing theories, arguments, and evidence often gains significant marks in assignments. Therefore it is important to be able to develop critical thinking skills and communicate these in your writing.

What Does “Being Critical” Really Mean?
There are some concerns surrounding the practice of being critical. Firstly , it is a common view that being critical is all about picking out the negative or weak aspects of a process or theory. This may lead to unnecessary tension when being assigned the task of criticising a system that may have many useful attributes.

What is being ‘critical’?
Secondly , the practice of criticising something that has already been decided upon and implemented may seem futile because of the lack of short and long-term application. Thirdly, being assigned the task of criticising the work of an esteemed author may appear to be an unreasonable demand because of the lack of knowledge and experience encountered by someone entering a discipline for the first time.

Finally , the fact that the author has had their work published means that whatever information they have written has already undergone a rigid process of change and evaluation, thereby rendering the student’s own criticisms as unnecessary and without substance, or application.

However, all of these criticisms fail to take into account the fundamental purpose of academic writing. The central task of academic writing is to demonstrate to the marker that you have thoroughly engaged with the ideas and interpretations of academic experts. This process is not (always) about reaching a definitive or absolute answer or conclusion to an issue.

Being ‘critical’ Rather, it is about joining in a broader academic debate about the pros and cons, advantages and disadvantages, or strengths and weaknesses surrounding a particular issue. Demonstrating that you have engaged with the literature, using a level of analysis that incorporates some degree of evaluation, is an effective method for presenting your engagement with the literature.

Being Critical Being critical is at the heart of this high-powered analysis or evaluation. Indeed, evaluation is a useful way of understanding the work involved in being critical in your writing, even to the point of providing an apt synonym for the word “critical”. In terms of addressing criticisms involved in being critical, mentioned earlier, one may respond with the following points.

Addressing criticisms on being Critical
1. Even when you agree with a process, in which you are required to carry out some critical analysis on, you can still highlight how it could be improved upon, and in so doing, identify areas of weakness. Furthermore, being critical encompasses not only the identification of weaknesses, but also strengths.

Pointing out the benefits and particular advantages of a system also demonstrates a level of evaluation and critical thinking because you are making a judgement about the usefulness of a system. This is likely to involve comparing the strengths of one system with another, thereby, contributing to a more in-depth level of analysis.

Addressing criticism on being Critical
2. The practice of being critical is about showing the marker that you have read widely and understood different interpretations and points of view, even if there will never be any application of your discussion and findings. 3. Reading widely and drawing on the criticisms of other authors (with acknowledgement of your sources) will provide you with the skills and knowledge to competently evaluate the workings and ideas of experts.

Addressing criticism on being Critical
4. Do not overestimate the value and certainty of any one theory or point of view, because it is highly unlikely that a single organisation or person can ever totally account for the entire conglomeration of circumstances, positions, and interpretations within their belief system, which has been shaped at a particular point in time.

Being Critical Included within the practice of being critical, is the concept of evaluation. However, in addition to this, there is also refutation and justification. Refutation, is about raising counterevidence for the purpose of highlighting its weaknesses. This is the aspect of counterargument/counter claim in Academic Argument.

Being Critical This is a powerful strategy in arguing because it shows that you are mindful of the opposition’s point of view, but you are also astute enough to evaluate the evidence on its merits, thereby conceding to its strengths as well as confirming weaknesses. This means if you provide both sides of a debate, it demonstrates balance and lack of bias, leading to a carefully considered evaluation and outcome. In the process of carrying out this evaluation, you are also working to justify your overall position more persuasively.

Being Critical By presenting counter points of view and then minimising them, your position is strengthened. Being critical also functions as a means of justifying your overall position and conclusion(s). Ultimately, this practice of being critical offers the marker a scholarly context in which to make an informed opinion.

What is Available for Critique?
You can start with the very topic addressed by the authors and whether or not it appropriately deals with the concerns and issues that need to be discussed within a wider social, cultural, and/or political context. It could be that the authors have developed their topic of focus from a particular position, which neglects other, more pressing issues.

In fact, the authors may have failed to consider an important component because of the potential difficulties surrounding access or measurement. Nevertheless, they still could have negotiated these difficulties or, at least, justified why they chose not to pursue them.

In addition to critiquing the nature of the topic chosen, you can also consider alternative ways of analysing the issue. In particular, the authors may have decided to adopt a quantitative approach to their investigation. This in itself upholds particular beliefs and assumptions, which may function to neglect other ways of understanding an issue.

Alternatively, the authors may have chosen a qualitative approach, which may present limitations in areas such as measurement, validity, and reliability, depending on the particular philosophical position you choose to support. Beyond the method of analysis and topic, you can consider how accurately the data has been interpreted. There may have been broad generalisations which have little bearing on what actually happens in real life.

Secondly, alternative explanations could have been drawn from some aspects of the data, yet these were not mentioned by the authors. Thirdly, interpretations may not fit well with the theoretical underpinnings explained at the beginning. Moreover, problems with interpretation may result from poorly designed and inaccurate data collection where potential for misrepresentation and carelessness are high.

The type of argument used to support the author’s philosophical position may present another area for critique. For instance, the argument may not be rigorous enough to dissuade you from alternative explanations. Further, you may have identified better arguments in support of the same idea in other readings.

Finally, the type of philosophical approach underlying the work can be made available for critique. This means you can focus on the weaknesses or gaps that the philosophical approach does not address. This can be achieved by identifying the points addressed in other relevant philosophical positions, and then demonstrating how these points are not covered by the author’s philosophical approach, followed by the potential outcomes gained if another philosophical approach had been utilised.

Steps for Developing Critical Thought
• Make up a list of the strengths and weaknesses or limitations surrounding a topic. • Consider the advantages and disadvantages pertaining to an issue. • Write down the costs and benefits of a solution or outcome. • Carry out a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) analysis.

• Carry out a PESTLE (political, economic, sociological, technological, legal, environmental) analysis. For example, consider the political implications at local, national, and international levels; evaluate the economic impact of a system globally and locally; identify the system’s effect(s) on society; overview the impact of technological change; highlight the legal consequences nationally and internationally; and identify the issue’s environmental impact globally and locally.

• Question…Is the argument based on factual evidence that can be proven, or is it merely constructed around biased opinion? • Does the theory come from only one perspective? • Look at the topic from different angles. Imagine yourself in the role of someone occupying a different social identity (a woman, man, elderly citizen, greenie, artist, activist, chief executive, politician), and consider the pros and cons surrounding the topic from this other perspective, as well as the gaps in the topic which neglect your needs and concerns.

• Is the theory logically presented
• Is the theory logically presented? Does the theory explain all of the outcomes and processes? • How old is the study/investigation/research? Has any other research disproved or disagreed with the conclusions drawn? • How many participants were included? Were they students? Did participants come from different cultural backgrounds or did they reflect one cultural group? How old were participants? Were there equal numbers of males and females?

• What are the issues at stake for the author
• What are the issues at stake for the author? What political motivations are involved? Are there political motivations? • Does the author provide an inclusive range of options? • Is the evidence convincing?

Could another researcher repeat the methods used and have a reasonable chance of getting the same or similar results? • Are limitations of the research or theory acknowledged? • Are there competing theories which offer better explanations? • Are there more effective, more scientific, more reliable, more cultural sensitive, more ecologically valid, or more practical methods that the researchers could have used?

Organising Your Critique
Once you have researched and gathered together relevant points to support your critique, it is timely to give some thought to the way this material will be organised and packaged in your writing. The key at this stage is to consider the most convincing order in which to present your material. For instance, if you have 4 points that support your critique and 3 points that dispute your critique, would it be better to present your supporting points first or last? Here are some suggestions for different ways to order your argument.

Supporting points first followed by opposition’s points
The advantage with this strategy is that your points are given primacy, and you begin your argument on a strong footing. This structure also allows you to mention the strength of your point of view twice: once at the beginning, and a second time when you minimise the criticisms against your points, thereby reinforcing the strengths of your own position.

The disadvantage of this approach is that firstly you may come across with a weak argument, because you end your writing with a defence of your position against opposing points. Secondly, when mentioning the opposition’s points, this may undermine your own points, which leads to your argument coming off less persuasively.

Opposition’s points first followed by supporting points
Although there may be less opportunity to reinforce the strength of your position twice, your argument may come across more strongly because first mention of your position occurs for the direct purpose of undermining the opposition’s point of view. The final information accessed by the reader constitutes the strength of your position.

Individual points debated
In this structure, each point from the opposition is responded to separately. The advantage of this structure is that it removes any back-tracking in details because each for and against issue is dealt with at the same time.

Most central to least central
Within this structure, the focus is on the particular order in which to present each of your supporting points. In this case, the most central of your supporting points is mentioned first. The advantage is that this makes your argument convincing and persuasive from the beginning.

Least central to most central
Within this structure, the focus is on the particular order in which to present each of your supporting points. In this case, the least central of your supporting points is mentioned first. The advantage is that the last point read by the reader is the strongest of all the points made. Due to the fact that this is the final piece of information that the reader is likely to receive, such information is likely to remain in the reader’s mind for a longer period, which may, therefore, lead to greater recall and greater recency in the reader’s thoughts.

Summary Being critical in your writing is about not just accepting what others argue for and conclude. It is about a carefully considered evaluation. It should be justifiable, that is, you should be able to support your critique with evidence, and it should also be balanced – so you can mention the pros as well as the cons.

Cont. It is difficult to feel experienced enough to be able to provide a critique of someone’s work. A useful tip is to locate a (literature) review of the issue you have to critique and draw on the criticisms mentioned in the review, of course with acknowledgement of your source(s). For example; Karl Marx’ Das Kapital- there is no time to read cover to cover so you read other people’s reviews of various points in the text.

Communication Based on Four Language Skills
Two Receptive Skills Two Productive Skills LISTENING READING SPEAKING WRITING

Receptive Skills Listening and Reading are two ways in which students receive information therefore, as a student, you must learn to overcome; Environmental (physical) Psychological Physiological Cultural and Semantic barriers to effective Listening and Reading.

Receptive Skills(cont.)
Keep in mind: Garbage IN, garbage OUT. If you allow yourself to be distracted in a lecture or in your reading, there is no full comprehension of material, and this will reflect in your Oral Presentations or Written Assignments.

Reading First establish Purpose for Reading: General reading
For assignment For research paper/presentation

Aims/Goals for Reading
1. Clear comprehension of material Active reading allows students to comprehend: Concepts Definitions Issues Opinions Facts

Examples

Aims/Goals of Reading 2. Clear Articulation of material
Students must be able to articulate their own Concepts Issues Opinions as well as those of others fluently and efficiently in speech/writing as a demonstration of their comprehension of material read.

Cont. 3. Become a critical reader
Students should not passively accept any writer’s opinion as fact but should: learn to detect bias in a text “read between the lines” for conscious/unconscious distortion in a text

Examples

SQ3R Reading Strategy A systematic approach to reading textbook material so as to read for mastering concepts Survey Question Read Recall/Recite

Critical reading What is critical reading?
Critical reading involves understanding the content of a text as well as how the subject matter is developed. Critical reading takes in the facts, but goes further. Does the text offer examples, ask for sympathy, argue the point or use a contrast to clarify the point? Is the text successful in achieving its purpose? You can read a text in at least three different ways.

Comprehension 1. Read to find out what the text says
Comprehension 1. Read to find out what the text says. Ask yourself: What are the main ideas of the text? Analysis 2. Read to see what the text does. Ask yourself: how is the information presented? Interpretation 3. Read to find out what the text means in a broader context. Ask yourself: What is the text saying?

CRITICAL READING STRATEGIES
Reading effectively requires approaching texts with a critical eye: evaluating what you read for not just what it says, but how and why it says it. Effective reading is central to both effective research (when you evaluate sources) and effective writing (when you understand how what you read is written, you can work to incorporate those techniques into your own writing). Being an effective reader also means being able to evaluate your own practices, working to develop your critical reading skills.

IDENTIFY WHAT YOU’RE READING FOR.
• Knowing why you’re reading a given text can help you organize both your reading and how you can use what you read. • Before you read a text, ask and answer the following kinds of questions: Are you reading only for general content? For data? For specific information or for general thematic concerns? For arguments that support or contest your thesis in a writing assignment? For information that you know you’ll need for an assignment, or for information to get you thinking about what you’ll need?

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Question

Recite

Review

Speaking There are major differences between a scientific article written for reading and one written to be read at a scientific meeting. In a written article, the reader can go over the text to absorb the material, even going back to a previous paragraph or page to help grasp the significance of something later in the text. But in an oral presentation, the listener may have only one chance to understand the material that is being presented; thus the speaker needs to present each idea clearly—and perhaps even repeat key points.

Speaking : PRESENTATIONS
In most scientific presentations, each speaker (except invited keynote speakers) is normally allowed only about 15 minutes. The speaker should allow 2 minutes for an introduction and 1 minute for the conclusion, which leaves about 12 minutes for the actual presentation. This is a short time to present research work that probably took several months or seasons to complete. Preparation is therefore necessary.

Preparation of Oral Presentation
Speaking at a normal speed, speakers can deliver about 400 words in 5 minutes. This is about 2 to 2½ double-spaced typewritten A4 pages. Therefore, for a I5-minute presentation, your paper should not exceed 10 double-spaced, typewritten A4 pages, plus your illustrative material. The text should contain only your major ideas. Avoid citing references and acknowledgements—these will waste your precious time.

Cont. Prepare or select your illustrative material such as slides or overhead transparencies very carefully. Ensure that it is relevant to the subject and will reinforce what you say.

Cont. Double space the text, or use large letters if your computer printer can handle them, so that the text is easy to read. Do not crowd too much data into the visual materials. Rehearse with a colleague so that you know your presentation will fit into the allotted time.

Preparation (cont.) Put your illustrations in the order you will use them and number them accordingly. If you are using slides, mark them so you know which way they go into the projector tray. Dress neatly and well.

At the venue(e.g. conference room)
Before your presentation, load your slides into the projector and do a trial run to ensure that they are all loaded correctly in the right sequence. If the projector is not working correctly, inform the conference organizers immediately so they can either fix it or bring in another one.

At the venue Check that the projector is sitting solidly on its stand.
Make sure that you know how to manipulate the projector, especially the remote-control mechanism.

During the Presentation
Speak clearly to your audience, not at your audience. Present a single idea or fact in a variety of ways by varying your construction and voice. Remember, present only one new idea every 3 minutes and repeat this in other ways to permit your audience to pick up the idea. Adopt a simple conversational style, do not shout.

The Presentation Be relaxed and confident. Look at the audience, not at the floor or out the window, no matter how shy you may be. Allocate your presentation time—Introduction 35%, Methods 40%, and Results and Discussion 25%. Pause after each new slide or transparency is projected to allow time for your audience to absorb the new material.

Presentation (cont.) Do not distract your audience by pacing up and down the room, tripping over the microphone cord, or fiddling continuously with the microphone. If you have to use a microphone, do not place it too close to your mouth because the sound quality will be poor. Get your message across clearly. Tell your audience what you are going to say (Introduction), say it (Methods, Results, Discussion), and then tell them what you have said (Conclusion).

Presentation (cont.) If possible, complete your presentation 2 minutes before your time is up. Do not get into a running battle with the chair, who will be struggling to stop your talk. Give other speakers a fair chance to present their work. At the end of your presentation, do not forget to thank the chair and the audience for their attention.

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