1. Harvard Medical School Boston, MA 02215
Beth Israel Deaconess Medical center
Harvard Medical School
Technical Advances of Fluoroscopy with Special Interests in Automatic Dose Rate Control (ADRC) Logic of Cardiovascular Angiography Systems (Modified For MCAAPM Meeting, November 2007)
Pei-Jan Paul Lin Department of Radiology Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center
and
Harvard Medical School Boston, MA 02215

2. PART I-(a). Review of Basic Automatic Brightness Controlled Fluoroscopy Systems. And Some historical overview.

3. Review of Fluoroscopy Equipment
Conventional Fluoroscopy Unit
Special Procedures Fluoroscopy Unit
Extension of conventional fluoroscopy.
Pedestal Type examination table fluoroscopy and over-head hanger synchronized lateral plane.
Fluoroscopy Systems with Positioners for
Cardiac Catheterization.
Neuro Angiography.
Visceral Angiography.
Electrophysiology Laboratory.
The discussion in this presentation will be focused on item (3), fluoroscopy systems with positioners.

4. The “Legacy” Fluoroscopy
Compartment for full size cassettes,
Either Conventional or Pedestal type examination table,
Image Intensifier,
Input Phosphor, and Output Phosphor.
Image intensifier is an Electron Optical Device.
Optical Distributor mounted on I.I. to accommodate Cameras, i.e.;
Photospot (photofluorographic) Camera,
Cine (cinematographic) Camera, and
Closed Circuit Television Camera
Compartment for full size cassettes,
Either Conventional or Pedestal type examination table,
Image Intensifier,
Input Phosphor, and Output Phosphor.
Image intensifier is an Electron Optical Device.
Optical Distributor mounted on I.I. to accommodate Cameras, i.e.;
Photospot (photofluorographic) Camera,
Cine (cinematographic) Camera, and
Closed Circuit Television Camera
Not until too long ago, the legacy fluoroscopy equipment employed in a cardiovascular angiography was just an extension of fluoroscopy equipment utilized for upper and lower GI studies. In fact, many angiographic studies were indeed carried out on a conventional fluoroscopy system equipped with stepping tabletop.

5. Image Intensifier Tower
Four way motorized tabletop
15/90, 30/90, 90/90 Tilting Examination Table
Compartment for full size cassettes,
Either Conventional or Pedestal type examination table,
Image Intensifier,
Input Phosphor, and Output Phosphor.
Image intensifier is an Electron Optical Device.
Optical Distributor mounted on I.I. to accommodate Cameras, i.e.;
Photospot (photofluorographic) Camera,
Cine (cinematographic) Camera, and
Closed Circuit Television Camera
Not until too long ago, the legacy fluoroscopy equipment employed in a cardiovascular angiography was just an extension of fluoroscopy equipment utilized for upper and lower GI studies. In fact, many angiographic studies were indeed carried out on a conventional fluoroscopy system equipped with stepping tabletop.
To accommodate various recording devices (namely, 100/105 mm photofluorographic camera, and CCTV camera). And for cine cardiac imaging a 35 mm cinematgraphic camera may be mounted on the optical distributor.
Typical Upper and Lower GI Fluoroscopy Equipment .

6. Four way floating tabletop / Stepping capable
C-arm connection
A specialized angiographic system is normally equipped with an examination table more suitable to accommodate angulation of the imaging plane; thus the tabletop is mounted on a pedestal as shown here on this slide. The image intensifier Tower and the x-ray tube assembly are mechanically integrated to form a rigid imaging plane ---C-arm.

7. Up to this point may be considered “Legacy Fluoroscopy” Equipment.
Irrespective of the geometrical configuration, the fluoroscopy is equipped with “Automatic Brightness Control” (ABC) circuit.
The TV chain is equipped with “Automatic Gain Control” (AGC).
The primary imaging parameter may be “tube potential”, “tube current”, or “pulse width” for pulsed fluoroscopy.
We will discuss the ABC logic based on the “kVp-”, and “mA-” primary control fluoroscopy system in detail later.

8. Four way floating tabletop / Stepping capable
C-arm connection
The newer generation of fluoroscopy systems have, in place of the image intensifier tower, a flat panel image detector. Since the flat panel image detector functions as the image receptor for fluoroscopy as well as the cine camera or photo spot camera, there is no clatter around the image reception portion of the imaging system. Electronically, the data stream is in “digital format”, and no human observable images are available until the processed image is displayed on a monitor.

9. “Gains” of Image Intensifier
Let us review some of the basic physics of fluoroscopy pertaining to image intensified system. Here are the four basic factors affecting the “gain” of image intensifier, and we shall focus on the two on the bottom half of the slide.

10. Total Brightness Gain of Image Intensified Fluorocopy System
For a 9” mode image intensifier with 1” output phosphor, the minification gain is (9/1)X(9/1)=81.
The Flux gain is approximately ~50.
Therefore, the total brightness gain is = 81 X 50 = 4050.
The flat panel image detector technology as a whole (at a minimum) will have to; (1) have a similar electronic gain in order to maintain the input sensitivity enjoyed by the image intensifier television chain, (2) hence, a comparable input sensitivity to maintain the same patient exposure.

11. The flat panel image detector technology as a whole (at a minimum) will have to; (1) have a similar electronic gain in order to maintain the input sensitivity enjoyed by the image intensifier television chain, (2) hence, a comparable input sensitivity to maintain the same patient exposure.
The flat panel image detector technology as a whole (at a minimum) will have to; (1) have a similar electronic gain in order to maintain the input sensitivity enjoyed by the image intensifier television chain, (2) hence, a comparable input sensitivity to maintain the same patient exposure.

12. Automatic Brightness Control
There are there primary imaging parameters that may be employed to drive the ABC circuit, namely;
The tube potential “kVp”,
The tube current “mA”, or
The exposure time, more accurately; “pulse width” for a pulsed fluoroscopy system.
Or, combinations of (1) through (3).
Let us start our discussion of Automatic Brightness Control circuits.

13. Usually, the tube potential and tube current are manually selected.
System (3), “Exposure Time system” is similar to the radiographic automatic exposure control (AEC), it “phototimes” each fluoroscopic pulse.
Usually, the tube potential and tube current are manually selected.
This method of brightness control has long been retired, and will not be discussed further.
System (3), “Exposure Time system” is similar to the radiographic automatic exposure control (AEC), it “phototimes” each fluorscopic pulse. Usually, the tube potential and tube current are manually selected.
This method of brightness control has long been retired, and will not be discussed further.

14. PART II-(b). kVp-primary ABC Circuit

15. Adapted from Reference #1
Let us go through the operation logic of a “kVp-primary” fluoroscopic ABC, as the one shown here in this slide. (a) Suppose, the x-ray tube potential and current are adjusted properly for a given steady situation.
Let us go through the operation logic of a “kVp-primary” fluoroscopic ABC, as the one shown here in this slide. (a) Suppose, the x-ray tube potential and current are adjusted properly for a given steady situation.
Adapted from Reference #1

16. Adapted from Reference #1
(b) Assume that a patient has swallowed a large amount of barium meal. Therefore, a sudden increase in x-ray absorption had occurred. (c) The voltage comparator detects that a decrease in voltage from the photomultiplier amplifier. A signal is sent to the “kVp-control Module” to increase the tube potential by 10 kVp. [If the current remained the same.]
(b) Assume that a patient has swallowed a large amount of barium meal. Therefore, a sudden increase in x-ray absorption had occurred. (c) The voltage comparator detects that a decrease in voltage from the photomultiplier amplifier. A signal is sent to the “kVp-control Module” to increase the tube potential by 10 kVp. [If the current remained the same.]
Adapted from Reference #1

17. Adapted from Reference #1
(d) The “mA-control module” receives a signal from the “kVp-control Module”, and will increase the tube current in accordance to a preprogrammed value based on the “fluoroscopy loading curve”. (e) As the x-ray tube current rises, the required increase in tube potential is reduced to perhaps 5 kVp, rather than 10 kVp.
(d) The “mA-control module” receives a signal from the “kVp-control Module”, and will increase the tube current in accordance to a preprogrammed value based on the “fluoroscopy loading curve”. (e) As the x-ray tube current rises, the required increase in tube potential is reduced to perhaps 5 kVp, rather than 10 kVp.
Adapted from Reference #1

18. Adapted from Reference #1
(f) A newly established steady state is then presented to the output phosphor of the image intensifier with a constant brightness again. (g) This whole process may take somewhere around 1 to 2 seconds.
(f) A newly established steady state is then presented to the output phosphor of the image intensifier with a constant brightness again. (g) This whole process may take somewhere around 1 to 2 seconds.
Adapted from Reference #1

19. Adapted from Reference #1
(h) During this transition time, the TV monitor image brightness is maintained to a constant by the Automatic Gain Control in the video chain. The reaction time of the AGC is approximately 40~60 mSec. This short reaction time of the AGC circuit essentially ensures a constant brightness level is presented to the human eyes.
(h) During this transition time, the TV monitor image brightness is maintained to a constant by the Automatic Gain Control in the video chain. The reaction time of the AGC is approximately 40~60 mSec. This short reaction time of the AGC circuit essentially ensures a constant brightness level is presented to the human eyes.
Adapted from Reference #1

20. PART II-(c). mA-primary ABC Circuit

21. Adapted from Reference #1
Let us go through the operation logic of a “mA-primary” fluoroscopic ABC, as the one shown here in this slide. (a) Suppose, the x-ray tube potential and current are adjusted properly for a given steady situation.
In a “mA-primary” fluoroscopic ABC,the operation is similar to the “kVp-promary” system. However, the tube potential may be manually selected, or defaulted to a preset kVp. The tube current is allowed to increase until the patient skin exposure is reached at a predefined value --- such as the maximum permissible dose rate of 10 R/min (88 mGy/min). Then the tube potential is increased by, a preset increment, say, 10 kVp.
Adapted from Reference #1

22. A few slides ago, it was mentioned that the “mA-control module” receives a signal from the “kVp-control Module”, and will increase the tube current in accordance to a preprogrammed value based on the “fluoroscopy loading curve”.
The fluoroscopy loading curve is at the heart of the ABC, and verification and/or evaluation of fluoroscopy ABC logic can be obtained through a simple experimental setup.

23. Irrespective of the image receptor system, i. e
Irrespective of the image receptor system, i.e., whether the image receptor is an image intensifier or a flat panel image detector, the subject of discussion does not change. The primary theme of this presentation is on the Automatic Brightness Control, or the updated version, called Automatic Dose Rate Control (ADRC) Logic which is available and installed on either of these image receptors.
Irrespective of the image receptor system, i.e., whether the image receptor is an image intensifier or a flat panel image detector, the subject of discussion does not change. The primary theme of this presentation is on the Automatic Dose Rate Control (ADRC) Logic which is available and installed on either of these image receptors.

24. Evaluation of the characteristics of an
ABC controlled “legacy” fluoroscopy system.
The geometry of experimental arrangement
Is not critical as long as “clinical” situation
Is simulated.
The phantom material may have been
aluminum, (2) copper, and (3) PMMA
Plastic. Pressed wood had also been
Employed without consistent results.
The accuracy of the fluoroscopic “kVp” &
“mA” should be assessed with appropriate
measurement devices so that the “power
Loading” can be correctly calculated.
The geometry of experimental arrangement is not critical as long as “clinical” situation is simulated.
The phantom material may have been (1) aluminum, (2) copper, and (3) PMMA Plastic. Pressed wood had also been employed without consistent results.
The accuracy of the fluoroscopic “kVp” & “mA” should be assessed with appropriate measurement devices so that the “power loading” can be correctly calculated.

25. This slide shows, for the “Normal Level” fluoroscopy mode under 25 cm image intensifier active phosphor size, the tube potential (kVp) and tube current (mA) as functions of the PMMA Phantom. The maximum permissive fluoroscopic parameters are reached with 10” of PMMA Phantom.

26. The power loading rate varies as the phantom thickness is increased
The power loading rate varies as the phantom thickness is increased. The maximum 330 W/sec [Heat Units/ sec] power loading rate is reached. At this point, it has also reached the 10 R/min [88 mGy/min] output limit required law. Beyond this point, with thicker phantom thickness becomes difficult to penetrate with proper signal levels.

27. These two fluoroscopy loading curves can be compared to verify the system operation against the manufacturer supplied Technical Data Sheets.
These two fluoroscopy loading curves can be compared to verify the system operation against the manufacturer supplied Technical Data Sheets.

28. The image intensifier input exposure rate (air kerma rate) beyond the 10” phantom thickness will starts to fall down due to the ABC Logic that limits generator to 110 kVp/3.0 mA
The image intensifier input exposure rate (air kerma rate) beyond the 10” phantom thickness will starts to fall down due to the ABC Logic that limits generator to 110 kVp/3.0 mA.

29. PART II. Evaluation of ABC Logic
Let us conduct the same test on a typical “Upper/Lower GI” Study fluoroscopy system (Philips Eleva System).
With Phantom Materials of; PMMA Plastic, Copper and Aluminum.
Compare the data to find out what thickness aluminum is equivalent to what thickness of copper.
NOTE: PMMA Plastic phantom data will be employed as the “standard” since it is more “tissue equivalent than aluminum or copper.

30. Not all available modes of combination were evaluated.
The Philips Eleva System evaluated in this study was equipped with the following features;
Image Intensifier Format: Tri mode I.I.
17/25/31 cm active phosphor sizes. (3)
Fluoroscopy Operation:
Continuous Fluoroscopy Mode. (2)
Pulsed Fluoroscopy Mode. (2)
Low Dose Level & High Dose Level Modes. (2)
Anti-scatter Grid may be removed.(2)
The permutation of available modes under fluoroscopic operation configuration ~ 48
Not all available modes of combination were evaluated.

31. Evaluation of the characteristics of an
ABC controlled “legacy” fluoroscopy system.
The geometry of experimental arrangement
Is not critical as long as “clinical” situation
Is simulated.
The phantom material may have been
aluminum, (2) copper, and (3) PMMA
Plastic. Pressed wood had also been
Employed without consistent results.
The accuracy of the fluoroscopic “kVp” &
“mA” should be assessed with appropriate
measurement devices so that the “power
Loading” can be correctly calculated.
This is the same slide shown before. For reminder of the geometrical arrangement employed for the system evaluation.

32. These graphs show that (1) the “Low Level” modes employ lower “kVp” than the “Normal Level” modes. And, the larger the active phosphor size employs lower “kVp” than smaller active phosphor sizes, (2) at the same time the larger active phosphor size with “Lower Level” fluoroscopy has a wider dynamic range in coverring the patient (phantom) thickness.
These graphs show that (1) the “Low Level” modes employ lower “kVp” than the “Normal Level” modes. And, the larger the active phosphor size employs lower “kVp” than smaller active phosphor sizes, (2) at the same time the larger active phosphor size with “Lower Level” fluoroscopy has a wider dynamic range in coverring the patient (phantom) thickness.

33. The x-ray current graphs show similar trends as that of the previous slide on “kVp”.

34. Low level IIIAKR is approximately 0. 7~0
Low level IIIAKR is approximately 0.7~0.75 mGy/sec, and the Normal level IIIAKR is 1.1 mGy/sec for the 31 cm active phosphor size, and 1.25 microGy/sec, and 1.35 mGy/sec for the 25 cm and 17 cm active phosphor sizes, respectively.
Low level IIIAKR is approximately 0.7~0.75 microGy/sec, and the Normal level IIIAKR is 1.1 microGy/sec for the 31 cm active phosphor size, and 1.25 microGy/sec, and 1.35 microGy/sec for the 25 cm and 17 cm active phosphor sizes, resvectively.

35. The “Air Kerma Rate” graphs show and confirm the same trends described in previous slides. Essentially, this fluoroscopy system is able to penetrate 10” to 14” of PMMA equivalent patient thickness depending on the mode of operation. This is typical of fluoroscopy systems employed for upper/lower GI studies.
The “Air Kerma Rate” graphs show and confirm the same trends described in previous slides. Essentially, this fluoroscopy system is able to penetrate 10” to 14” of PMMA equivalent patient thickness depending on the mode of operation. This is typical of fluoroscopy systems employed for upper/lower GI studies.

36. While the same set of data using Copper and Aluminum was not shown, the Fluoroscopy Loading Curves are depicted here. As far as loading curves, the phantom material should not affect the Power Loading of the fluoroscopy.

37. To find out the thickness equivalence between Copper and Aluminum, the same “Air Kerma Rate” is presumed to have the same attenuation for their respective phantom thicknesses.

38. Thickness Equivalence (Philips Eleva System)
Air Kerma Rate (mGy/min)
Copper (mm)
Aluminum (mm)
Aluminum (inches)
PMMA (inches) 10
0.8 19
3/4
3.67
[3-3/4] 20
1.6 38
1-1/2
5-1/2 40
3.2 58
2-1/4
7.3
[7-1/2] 80
5.6 76
3.0
9.3
[9-1/2]
For the thickness of Aluminum and PMMA phantoms in the Imperial System, the thickness is rounded to the commercially available thicknesses.

39. “mA-primary” ABC Logic
Going back to the very begigning of this presentation, and let us recall the Schematic Drawing of the ABC Logic. By swapping the “kVp” control module and the “mA” control module, the drawing noe represents a “mA-primary” ABC Logic.

40. A GE Advantx fluoroscopy system is equipped with the “mA-primary” ABC Logic.
The tube potential may be pre-selected, and defaulted to 75 kVp for fluoroscopy operation. This is the minimum “kVp” unless the “kVp” is manually selected at a lower value.
The tube potential is increased by a preset value (5, or 10 kVp) when the Patient Air Kerma Rate approaches the regulatory limitation.
The system is calibrated to work at a given “kVp” while the “mA” is varied in accordance to the attenuation the optical sensor “sees”.

41. The same set of data obtained on the Philips System is also obtained
The same set of data obtained on the Philips System is also obtained. This slide shows the Tube Potential and Tube Current as functions of the PMMA Phantom Thickness. NOTE: the default “kVp” values for the 60 kVp, and the 75 kVp are represented here.
The same set of data obtained on the Philips System is also obtained. This slide shows the Tube Potential and Tube Current as functions of the PMMA Phantom Thickness. NOTE: the default “kVp” values for the 60 kVp, and the 75 kVp are represented here.

42. Note: This is a 10 year old system and the IIIAKR has been increased to account for the decreased image intensifier efficiency. At the 6” of phantom thickness, there is a singular point that corresponds to a jump in Tube Potential.
Note: This is a 10 year old system and the IIIAKR has been increased to account for the decreased image intensifier efficiency. At the 6” of phantom thickness, there is a singular point that corresponds to a jump in Tube Potential.

43. The phantom thickness equivalence graphs are charted on this slide
The phantom thickness equivalence graphs are charted on this slide. The points of discontinuity correspond to the phantom thickness that triggered the generator to increase the tube potential.
The phantom thickness equivalence graphs are charted on this slide. The points of discontinuity correspond to the phantom thickness that triggered the generator to increase the tube potential.

44. Philip Eleva GE Advantx 0.8 19 0.75 22 0.87 3.65 2.5 1.6 38 1.5 36Cu
(mm) Al
(inches)
PMMA (inches)
0.8 19
0.75 22
0.87
3.65
2.5
1.6 38
1.5 36
1.42
5.5
4.3
3.2 58
2.25 68
2.7
7.3
5.6 76 3 82
9.3 9
This slide shows when a comparison is made between a Philips Eleva System and a GE Advantx System.

45. This chart may be used to convert the phantom thickness from one material to another, amongst copper, aluminum, and PMMA plastic.
This chart may be used to convert the phantom thickness from one material to another, amongst copper, aluminum, and PMMA plastic.

46. PART III. The ADRC; new generation of ABC
Application of filters using aluminum, copper and high atomic number elements for patient exposure reduction had been studied for use in radiographic examinations.
On the other hand, the introduction of copper filters for spectral shaping during fluoroscopic imaging procedures had been available for the past decade,
However, extensive application of spectral shaping filters started in its earnest as the interventional angiography procedures become widely practiced in the US in the early 1990s.
Use of spectral shaping filters contributed to minimize the patient (skin entrance exposure) air kerma dramatically while the image quality is optimized and maintained.
Excerpt from Reference #2

47. New Generation of Cardiovascular Fluoroscopy Systems are equipped with;
High Frequency Inverter Type Generator
Precise switching time ( 1 msec)
Better Pulse Shape (less over/under shoot)
Spectral Shaping Filters
0.2 ~ 0.9 mm copper (beam hardening)
On a rotating wheel in collimator assembly (interchangeable filters during fluoroscopy)
High Heat Capacity X-ray Tube
High Anode Heat Capacity (2 MHU)
High X-ray Tube Housing Heat Capacity (3 MHU)
To counter attenuation by spectral shaping filter

48. Automatic Dose Rate Control (ADRC) Logic
A sophisticated software programming to control the copper filter thickness in response to x-ray attenuation.
The ADRC is designed to control various imaging parameters including; (1) focal spot size, (2) kVp, (3) mA, (4) pulse width, etc. during fluoroscopy.
The heavy copper filter preferentially removed low energy photons and the mean x-ray beam energy is, thus, increased.
(d) For the same applied tube potential this would require a higher “tube current” to produce an acceptable image quality. --- Hence, a “high power” x-ray tube is required.

49. Automatic Dose Rate Control (ADRC) Logic
The fluoroscopy system employed is a Siemens Bi-plane angiography system AXIOM Artis dBA.
Operated under 22 cm flat panel image receptor mode. [It is a 48 cm flat panel.]
Pulsed fluoroscopy 15 pulses/sec.
Fluoroscopy curve name: 80kV10RAF2kW
Equipped with spectral shaping filters of; 0.2, 03, 0.6, and 0.9 mm of copper.
The small focal spot (0.6 mm) is the default.
SID = 105 cm, Source-to-chamber #1 = 60 cm.

50. Evaluation of the Automatic Dose Rate Control (ADRC) Logic
Geometrical Arrangement
Adapted from Reference #2

51. Tube Potential (kVp) and Filter Thickness (mmCu) vs
Tube Potential (kVp) and Filter Thickness (mmCu) vs. PMMA Thickness (inches)
The slide shows the step wise increase of tube potential (kVp) and corresponding step wise decrease of copper filter (mmCu) as functions of Nominal Phantom Thickness (inches).

52. Tube Current (mA) vs. PMMA Thickness (inches)
The discontinuity (saw tooth like shape) of the tube current graph is where the copper filter has been changed under the ADRC Logic commands.

53. Pulse Width (mSec) vs. PMMA Thickness (inches)
The discontinuity of the pulse width is where the copper filter has been changed under the ADRC Logic commands.

54. Putting all three slides together, it is quite obvious the discontinuity points correspond to the phantom thicknesses where the copper filter had been changed.

55. Input Sensitivity in front of the Flat Panel Image Detector
Patient Skin Dose (Air Kerma)
Depicted in this slide are, the input sensitivity of flat panel image receptor and the patient (phantom) air kerma rate. The input sensitivity curve is quite flat between 0.7 and 0.77 microGy/sec while the Patient Air Kerma Rate spans over a dynamic range of some 0.1 mGy/min to 100 mGy/min.

56. Why is it possible to have a “Better Image Quality” & “Lower Patient Dose” at the same time?
Image quality is “better” because of consistently lower tube potential is employed---higher image contrast!
Radiation dose to the patients, especially, small and average size patient, is significantly reduced due to the use of spectral shaping filters --- considerably amount of low energy portion of spectrum is removed before hitting the patient.

57. There are many fluoroscopy curves designed by the manufacturers tailored to fit specific types of examination.
Some 256 fluoroscopy curves are available.
Cardiac vs. Neuro vs. Visceral angiography
For adults ? Or for pediatric patients?
Needs to verify the preprogrammed fluoroscopy curves for the intended use of the system.
Not only the acceptance testing of the hardware is necessary, but also evaluation of the software becomes increasingly important.

58. Fluoroscopy Curve 70kV10RAF3kW
Data Source: AAPM TG 125

59. Fluoroscopy Curve 70kV10RAF3kW
Data Source: AAPM TG 125

60. Fluoroscopy Curve 70kV10RAF2kW
Data Source: AAPM TG 125

61. Fluoroscopy Curve 70kV10RAF2kW
Data Source: AAPM TG 125

62. Fluoroscopy Curve 70kV10RAF2kW (Pediatric)
Data Source: AAPM TG 125

63. Fluoroscopy Curve 70kV10RAF2kW (Pediatric)
Data Source: AAPM TG 125

64. What’s beyond the ADRC Logic?
The fluoroscopy is employed to find the passage and manipulate the catheter and/or the guide wire to the point of interests.
The mission of the ADRC for fluoroscopy may be accomplished but is just the starting point for the acquisition of diagnostic information.
In other words, the “acquisition mode” of the examination, as opposed to the “fluoroscopic mode” lies ahead.

65. Additional control circuits and operation logic are built-in the ADRC for acquisition of cine images for cardiac angiography studies, and the DSA images for “Native Mode” and “Subtraction Mode” for neuro angiography and visceral angiography studies.

66. Due primarily to the better image intensifier, television chain.
Comparison of Input Sensitivities
10 mR/frame is equivalent to 0.1 mGy/frame.
Due primarily to the better image intensifier, television chain.
Data Date: 2001

67. Due primarily to the better image intensifier & television chain.
Comparison of Patient Exposure/Air Kerma Rate
10 mR/frame is equivalent to 0.1 mGy/frame.
Due primarily to the better image intensifier & television chain.
Data Date: 2001

68. Rotational Angiography
The C-arm frontal plane is employed for the raw data acquisition.
3D Imaging
CT-like
Scan Parameters For CT 16 cm CTDI Phantom
70 kVp/20 mA per frame (AEC)
Siemens File Name
5S-1KDR
10S-1KDR
Angle of Rotation
192o
204.8o
Angles Per Frame
1.5o
0.8o
Number of Frames
128
256
Peripheral Dose (reference O’clock) mR
452
947
mGy
3.84
8.05
Center Dose (reference only) 9 12
0.077
0.102
Matrix Size
1024 X 1024

69. Simplified Basic Principle of CT-like Image and 3D Image Reconstruction with Rotational Angiography Equipment
One projection image is obtained every 1.5o of rotation resulting in 128 images in 5 seconds.
Each image has a matrix size of 1024 X 1024.
Through back projection image reconstruction the CT-like images can be generated.
For a 512 X 512 CT-like image, two pixel rows of the projected image is “binned” together for processing.

70. There are 128 projected images. Each image is composed of 1024 slices.
To save processing time, two rows and two columns of data may be binned together to form a 512 X 512 matrix CT-like image.
This is illustrated in the next slide.
The original DR images are in matrix size of, say, X 1024.

72. Clinical Images; Courtesy of Arra S. Reddy, M.D.

73. This is a simulated image.
128 images of 512 X 512 matrix size CT-like images are reconstructed.
These images are further processed to generate 3D images.

74. Acquisition of CT-like & 3D Images with Rotational Angiography Unit

75. Left Side: Rotaional Angiography Equipment | Right Side: CT-scanner
Projection “Raw” Fluoroscopy Image;
Notice the divergent beam of CONE shaped fluoroscopy beam causing distortion. (negative image)
Scout View of CT scanner shows minimal distortion, or almost distortion less image (positive image)

76. Left Side: Rotational Angiography Equipment | Right Side: CT-scanner
Slice width ramps in the center of image with four plastic pins for linearity test are clearly shown.
Notice the similarity of the artifacts next to the slice width aluminum ramps.

77. Left Side: Rotational Angiography Equipment | Right Side: CT-scanner
This is the high contrast resolution section of CT phantom. The 0.75 mm square holes are resolved.
The resolution of this CT scanner under Standard Reconstruction algorithm resolves 0.65 mm square holes, and better with “BONE” reconstruction algorithm.

78. Left Side: Rotational Angiography Equipment | Right Side: CT-scanner
While CT scanners are designed for resolving “low contrast objects”, the angiography equipment is able to show the nominal 2% contrast group under the CT scanner. Notice that the contrast level will not be the same due to the photon energy differences and the partial volume effect.

79. The 3D images are best appreciated when presented in “Motion”.
Clinical Images; Courtesy of Arra S. Reddy, M.D.
The 3D images are best appreciated when presented in “Motion”.

80. We have come a long way from this!
Photo: Courtesy of Siemens Medical Systems

81. References & Other Reading Material
PP Lin, “Acceptance testing of automatic exposure control systems and automatic brightness stabilized fluoroscopic equipment”, in Quality Assurance in Diagnostic Radiology, AAPM Monograph No. 4, New York: Am. Inst. Phys., pp (1980)
PP Lin, “The operation logic of automatic dose control of fluoroscopy systems in conjunction with spectral shaping filters”, Med. Phys. Vol 34 no 8, pp (2007)
PP Lin, “Cine and Photospot Cameras”, in Encyclopedia of Medical Devices and Instrumentation, John G. Webster Editor, John Wiley & Son, Publisher, 1st Edition, Vol. 2, pp (1988)
AAPM TG 125 Home Page.
Address: