1. Writing Business Reports and Proposals
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2. Three-Step Writing Process
Planning
Chapter 12
Writing
Chapter 13
Completing
Chapter 14
Analyzing
Investigating
Adapting
Organizing
Composing
Designing
Revising
Producing
Proofreading
As with other business messages, when writing reports and proposals you benefit from following the three-step writing process: (1) planning, (2) writing, and (3) completing business messages.
Since much of the writing process is covered in Chapters 4, 5 and 6, the following sections discuss only those parts that differ for reports and proposals.
This chapter focuses on Step 2, writing business reports and proposals. Step 1 is discussed in Chapter 12, “Planning Business Reports and Proposals,” and Step 3 is the subject of Chapter 14, “Completing Formal Business Reports and Proposals."
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3. Organizing Reports and Proposals
Business
Document
Collected
Material
Format
Length
Order
Structure
Before you can compose a business report or proposal, you must organize the material you've collected, arranging it in a logical order that meets your audience's needs. Carefully choose the format, length, order, and structure for your report or proposal before drafting even the first word.
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4. Deciding on Format and Length
Preprinted
Form
Letter
Memorandum
At times, the decision about format and length will be made for you by the person who requests the report. This is often the case with monitor/control reports, procedural reports, proposals, progress reports, and compliance reports. When selecting a format for your report, you have four options:
Preprinted form. Used for fill-in-the-blank reports. Most are relatively short (five or fewer pages) and deal with routine (often numerical) information. Use this format when it's requested by the person authorizing the report.
Letter. Commonly used for reports of five or fewer pages that are directed to outsiders. These reports include all the normal parts of a letter, but they may also have headings, footnotes, tables, and figures.
Memo. Commonly used for short (fewer than 10 pages) informal reports distributed within an organization. Like longer reports, they often have internal headings and sometimes include visual aids. Memos exceeding 10 pages are sometimes referred to as memo reports to distinguish them from their shorter cousins.
Manuscript. Commonly used for reports that require a formal approach, whether a few pages or several hundred. As length increases, reports in manuscript format require more elements before the text (prefatory parts) and after (supplementary parts).
Manuscript
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5. Business Communication Today
Choosing an Approach
Receptive
Hostile
Direct
Approach
Indirect
Audience
Audience
What order is best for your audience and purpose? When an audience is considered either receptive or open-minded, use the direct approach: Lead off with a summary of your key findings, conclusions, and recommendations. This "up-front" arrangement is by far the most popular and convenient order for business reports. It saves time and makes the rest of the report easier to follow. For those who have questions or want more information, later parts of the report provide complete findings and supporting details.
At times, however, confidence may be misconstrued as arrogance. If you're a junior member of a status-conscious organization or if your audience is skeptical or hostile, you may want to use the indirect approach: Introduce your complete findings and discuss all supporting details before presenting your conclusions and recommendations. The indirect approach gives you a chance to prove your points and gradually overcome your audience's reservations. By deferring the conclusions and recommendations, you imply that you've weighed the evidence objectively without prejudging the facts.
Also consider length before choosing the direct or indirect approach. In general, the longer the message, the less effective an indirect approach is likely to be.
Open-Minded
Skeptical
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6. Structuring Informational Reports
Sequence
Chronology
Spatial Orientation
Geography
Category
Importance
Informational reports are the easiest to organize because they provide nothing more than facts. When writing informational reports, reader reaction is not usually an issue. Most readers will presumably respond unemotionally to your material, so you can present it in the most direct fashion possible. What you do need to be concerned about is reader comprehension; therefore, information must be presented logically and accurately.
Informational reports use a topical organization, arranging material according to one of these following topics:
Importance. If you're reviewing five product lines, you might organize your study according to the sales for each product line, beginning with the line that produces the most revenue and proceeding to the one that produces the least.
Sequence. If you're studying a process, discuss it step by step.
Chronology. When investigating a chain of events, organize the study according to what happened in January, what happened in February, and so on.
Spatial orientation. If you're explaining how a physical object works, describe it left to right, top to bottom, outside to inside.
Geography. If location is important, organize your study according to geography, perhaps by region of the United States or by area of a city.
Category. If you're asked to review several distinct aspects of a subject, look at one category at a time, such as sales, profit, cost, or investment.
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Structuring
Analytical
Reports
Receptive
Audiences
Skeptical
Audiences
Your choice of structural approach depends on the reaction you anticipate:
Receptive audiences. When you expect your audience to agree with you, use a structure that focuses attention on conclusions and recommendations.
Skeptical audiences. When you expect your audience to disagree with you or to be hostile, use a structure that focuses attention on the rationale behind your conclusions and recommendations.
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8. Structural Approaches for Analytical Reports
Focus on
Conclusions
Recommendations
Logical Argument
When writing an analytical report for people from your own organization who have asked you to study something, you're writing for your most receptive readers. If they're likely to accept your conclusions, you can structure your report around conclusions using a direct approach.
When structuring a report around recommendations, use the direct approach as you would for a report that focuses on conclusions. Then, unfold your recommendations using a series of five steps:
1. Establish the need for action in the introduction, generally by briefly describing the problem or opportunity.
2. Introduce the benefit that can be achieved, without providing any details.
3. List the steps (recommendations) required to achieve the benefit, using action verbs for emphasis.
4. Explain each step, giving details on procedures, costs, and benefits.
5. Summarize the recommendations.
When your purpose is to collaborate with your audience and solve a problem or persuade them to take a definite action, your structural approach must highlight logical arguments or focus the audience's attention on what needs to be done. When you want your audience to concentrate on why your ideas make sense, use a logical organization: Arrange your ideas around the reasoning behind your report's conclusions and recommendations.
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9. Logical Structures for Analytical Reports
2 + 2 Approach
Scientific Method
Yardstick Approach
Three basic structural approaches may be used to argue your case: the = 4 approach, the scientific method, and the yardstick approach. Bear in mind that these three approaches are not mutually exclusive.
The = 4 approach essentially convinces readers of your point of view by demonstrating that everything adds up. The main points in your outline are the main reasons behind your conclusions and recommendations. You support each reason with the evidence you collected during your analysis.
When you're trying to discover whether an explanation is true, whether an option will solve your problem, or which one of several solutions will work best, you're likely to find the scientific method useful. Reports based on the scientific method begin with a statement of the problem and a brief description of the hypothetical solution or a list of possible solutions. The body of the report discusses each alternative in turn and offers evidence that will either confirm the alternative or rule it out. The final section summarizes the findings and indicates which solution or solutions are valid. The report concludes with recommendations for solving the problem or eliminating the causes.
One way to reduce the confusion presented by having a lot of alternatives is to establish a yardstick for evaluating them. Begin by discussing the problem, as with the scientific method; then set up the conditions (criteria) that must be met to solve the problem. The body of the report evaluates those alternatives in relation to the criteria.
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10. Structuring Proposals
Unreceptive
Indirect
Unsolicited
Proposals
Type of Audience
Type of Approach
Just as with reports, your choice of structural approach for proposals depends on whether you expect your audience to be receptive. In general, your audience may be more receptive with solicited proposals since the problem and the solution have already been identified. The writer submits a proposal for the work specified in the RFP that is issued by the prospective client, and structures the proposal using a direct approach, focusing on the recommendation.
The indirect approach may be a better choice for unsolicited proposals. When writing unsolicited proposals you must first convince the audience that a problem exists and establish your credibility if you are unknown to the reader.
Solicited
Proposals
Receptive
Direct
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11. Drafting Reports and Proposals
Purpose
Structure
First Draft
Introduction
Audience
Author
Body
Once you've decided on the proper format, length, order, and structure for your report or proposal, you’re ready to begin composing your first draft. Effective writers begin the writing task by preparing a final outline.
As with other written business communications, the text of reports and proposals has three main sections: an introduction, a body, and a closing. The content and length of each section varies with the type and purpose of the document, the document’s organizational structure, the length and depth of the material, the document’s degree of formality, and the writer’s relationship with the audience.
Closing
Length
and Depth
Formality
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12. Business Communication Today
The Introduction
Report
Context
Subject
or Purpose
Main Ideas
The introduction is the first section in the text of any report or proposal. An effective introduction accomplishes at least four things:
Puts the report or proposal in a broader context by tying it to a problem or an assignment.
Introduces the subject or purpose of the report or proposal and indicates why the subject is important.
Previews the main ideas and the order in which they’ll be covered.
Establishes the tone of the document and the writer’s relationship with the audience.
Overall Tone
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13. Business Communication Today
The Body Chapters
Present
Analyze
Interpret
Support
The body is the middle section in the text of your report or proposal. It consists of the major divisions or chapters (with various levels of headings for long documents). These divisions present, analyze, and interpret the information gathered during your investigation, and they support the recommendations or conclusions discussed in your document. The body contains the "proof," the detailed information necessary to support your conclusions and recommendations.
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14. The Closing Section Emphasizes the Main Points Summarizes the Benefits
Reinforces the Structure
The closing is the final section in the text of your report or proposal. It has four important functions:
Emphasizes the main points of the message.
Summarizes the benefits to the reader if the document suggests a change or some other course of action.
Refers back to all the pieces (overall structure) and reminds readers how those pieces fit together.
Brings all the action items together in one place and gives the details about who should do what, when, where, and how.
Research shows that the final section of a report or proposal leaves a strong lasting impression. The closing gives you one last chance to make sure that your report says what you intended.
Brings Action Items Together
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15. Business Communication Today
Report Content
Accurate
Complete
The content and quality of your reports will likely influence your professional success, because they show how well you think, gather and analyze data, draw conclusions, and develop and support your recommendations. Your credibility and future success is on the line with every business report you write. You’ll create more successful reports if your content is as follows:
Accurate. Information presented in a report must be factually correct and error free. When writing reports, be sure to double-check your facts and references in addition to checking for typos.
Complete. To help colleagues or supervisors make a decision, include all the information necessary for readers to understand the situation, problem, or proposal. Support all key assertions using illustrations, explanations, and facts. Tell your readers what they need to know, in a way that meets their needs.
Balanced. Present all sides of the issue fairly and equitably, and include all the information necessary. Omitting relevant information or facts can make your report biased.
Structured clearly and logically. Clear sentence structure and good transitions are essential. Identify the ideas that belong together, and organize them in a way that's easy to understand.
Documented properly. If you use primary and secondary sources for your report or proposal, properly document and give credit to your sources.
Balanced
Structured
Documented
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16. Business Communication Today
Report Introduction
Authorization
Problem
Purpose
Scope
Background
Sources
Methods
Definitions
Limitations
Organization
The following topics are commonly covered in a report introduction. Include those elements that will help your readers understand and accept your report:
Authorization. When, how, and by whom the report was authorized; who wrote it; and when it was submitted.
Problem/purpose. The reason for the report's existence and what is to be accomplished as a result of the report's being written.
Scope. What is and what isn't going to be covered in the report. The scope indicates the report's size and complexity.
Background. The historical conditions or factors that led up to the report. This section tells how the problem developed and what has been done, so far.
Sources and methods. The primary and secondary sources of information used. This section explains how samples were selected, how questionnaires were constructed, what follow-up was done, and so on.
Definitions. A brief statement introducing a list of terms and their definitions. Terms may also be defined in the body, explanatory notes, or glossary.
Limitations. Factors beyond your control that affect report quality. This section includes doubts about any aspect of your report. Even so, limitations do not excuse a poor study or a bad report.
Report organization. The organization of the report, along with a rationale for following this plan.
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17. Business Communication Today
Report Body
Explanations
Evidence
Results
Analyses
Procedures
Methods
Criteria
Conclusions
Recommendations
Support
One of the decisions you need to make when writing the body of your report is how much detail to include. Some audiences and situations require detailed coverage; others lend themselves to shorter treatment. Provide only enough detail in the body to support your conclusions and recommendations; put additional detail in tables, charts, and appendixes. The following topics commonly covered in a report body:
Explanations of a problem or opportunity
Facts, statistical evidence, and trends
Results of studies or investigations
Discussion and analyses of potential courses of action
Advantages, disadvantages, costs, and benefits of a course of action
Procedures and steps for a process
Methods and approaches
Criteria for evaluating alternatives and options
Conclusions and recommendations, and support for them
With the direct approach, state your conclusions or recommendations up front and provide evidence and support in the body. With the indirect approach, discuss your logic in the body and reserve conclusions or recommendations until the very end.
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18. Business Communication Today
Report Closing
Direct-Order
Organization
Indirect-Order
Organization
Your choice of a direct or indirect order, among other variables, determines the content and length of your report closing. If your report is organized in the direct order, end with a summary of key points, and list them in order, as they appear in the report body. If appropriate, briefly restate your conclusions or recommendations. If your report is organized in the indirect order, your conclusions or recommendations may be presented for the first time at the end. Just remember that new facts are never presented in a report’s conclusion or recommendation.
If your report is intended to lead to action, use the ending to spell out exactly what should happen next. Providing a schedule and specific task assignments is helpful because concrete plans have a way of commanding action.
In a short report, the ending may be only a paragraph or two. However, a long report may have separate sections for conclusions, recommendations, and actions.
If you have multiple conclusions, recommendations, or actions, you may want to number and list them.
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19. Business Communication Today
Proposal Content
Solicited
Proposals
Unsolicited
Proposals
Like reports, proposals have an introduction, a body, and a closing. The content for each section is governed by many variables—the key variable being the source of your proposal.
If your proposal is unsolicited, you have some latitude in the scope and organization of the proposal’s content. However, the scope and organization of a solicited proposal is often governed by the Request for Proposal (RFP). The RFP spells out precisely what should be covered and in what order so that all bids will be similar in form. This uniformity enables the client to evaluate the competing proposals in a systematic way.
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20. Strategies for Successful Proposals
Demonstrate your knowledge
Provide concrete examples
Research the competition
Prove that your proposal is workable
Adopt a “you” attitude
Package your proposal attractively
The general purpose of any proposal is to persuade the readers to do something. Your proposal must sell your audience on your ideas, product, service, methods, and company. Just as with any persuasive message, you use the AIDA plan to gain attention, build interest, create desire, and motive action. Here are some additional strategies to strengthen your argument:
Demonstrate your knowledge. Everything you write should show your reader that you have the knowledge and experience to solve the problem.
Provide concrete examples. Avoid vague, unsupported generalizations. Instead, provide quantifiable details. Spell out your plan and give details on how the job will be done. Such concrete examples persuade readers; unsupported generalizations don’t.
Research the competition. This strategy is especially important if you are competing against others for a job.
Prove that your proposal is workable. Your proposal must be appropriate and feasible for the audience.
Adopt a “you” attitude. Relate your product, service, or personnel to the reader’s exact needs.
Package your proposal attractively. Make sure your proposal is letter perfect, inviting, and readable.
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21. Proposal Introduction
Background
or Problem
Proposed
Solution
Scope or
Delimitations
The introduction presents and summarizes the problem you want to solve and your solutions. It orients the readers to the remainder of the text. If your proposal is solicited, its introduction should refer to the RFP; if unsolicited, its introduction should mention any factors that led you to submit your proposal. The following topics are commonly covered in a proposal introduction:
Background or statement of the problem. Briefly reviews the reader's situation and establishes a need for action. Readers may not perceive a problem or opportunity the same way you do. In unsolicited proposals, you must convince them that a problem or opportunity exists before you can convince them to accept your solution. In a way that is meaningful to your reader, discuss the current situation and explain how things could be better.
Solution. Briefly describes the change you propose and highlights your key selling points and their benefits, showing how your proposal will solve the reader's problem. In long proposals, the heading for this section might also be "Preliminary Analysis," “Overview of Approach,” or some other wording that will identify this section as a summary of your solution.
Scope. States the boundaries of the proposal––what you will and will not do. This brief section may also be labeled "Delimitations.”
Report organization. Orients the reader to the remainder of the proposal and calls attention to the major divisions of thought.
Organization
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22. Business Communication Today
Proposal Body
Proposed
Approach
Work Plan
Qualifications
The proposal’s body has the same purpose as the body of other reports: It gives complete details on the proposed solution and specifies what the anticipated results will be. In addition to providing facts and evidence to support your conclusions, an effective body covers this information:
Proposed approach. This section describes what you have to offer: your concept, product, or service. Show how your product or service will benefit your readers, and point out advantages that you have over your competitors.
Work plan. Describes how you'll accomplish what must be done. Explain the steps you'll take, their timing, the methods or resources you'll use, and the person(s) responsible.
Statement of qualifications. Describes your organization's experience, personnel, and facilities—all in relation to readers' needs.
Costs. Estimating costs is difficult, so prove that your costs are realistic. Break them down in detail. Then, your readers can see how you got your numbers: so much for labor, materials, transportation, travel, training, and other categories.
Detailed
Costs
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23. Business Communication Today
Proposal Closing
Key Points
Benefits
and Merits
Qualifications
The final section of a proposal generally summarizes the key points of the proposal, emphasizes the benefits that the readers will realize from your solution, summarizes the merits of your approach, reemphasizes why you and your firm are the ones to do the work, and asks for a decision from the client. This is you last opportunity to persuade readers to accept your proposal. In both formal and informal proposals, make this section relatively brief, assertive, and confident.
Final
Decision
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24. Choosing the Degree of Formality
Audience
Format
Length
Organization
Message
Message
When writing a report or a proposal, you must choose an appropriate degree of formality. Your choice is closely related to the document’s format, length, and organization. If you know your readers reasonably well and if your report is likely to meet with their approval, you can generally adopt an informal tone.
Longer reports, especially those dealing with controversial or complex information, are traditionally written using a more formal tone. You'll also write more formally when your report will be sent to other parts of the organization or to customers or suppliers. Communicating with people in other cultures often calls for more formality. The business environment outside the United States tends to be more formal.
You can often tell what tone is appropriate for your readers by looking at other reports of a similar type in your company. If all the other reports on file are impersonal, you should probably adopt the same tone yourself, unless you're confident that your readers prefer a more personal style.
Audience
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25. Revealing the Structure
Words
Sentences
Paragraphs
Readability
Frameworks
Relationships
Introductions
Summaries
Overviews
Previews
and Reviews
Transitional
Devices
Headings and
Subheadings
Good writers give their readers a preview or road map of a report's structure, clarifying how the various parts are related. Three tools are useful for giving readers a sense of the overall structure of your document and for keeping them on track: headings, smooth transitions, and previews and reviews.
Headings are brief titles that cue readers about the content of the section that follows. They improve a document’s readability and are especially useful markers for clarifying the framework of a report. They visually indicate shifts from one idea to the next, and when subheadings (lower-level headings) and headings are both used, they help readers see the relationship between subordinate and main ideas. In addition, busy readers can quickly understand the gist of a document simply by scanning the headings.
Transitions are words or phrases that tie ideas together and show how one thought is related to another and help readers move from one section of a report to the next. Depending on the length of the report, such transitions can be words, sentences, or complete paragraphs that serve as previews of the next section of a report or reviews of the ideas presented in the section just ending.
Using a preview section to introduce an important topic helps readers get ready for new information. Previews are particularly helpful when the information is complex or unexpected. Review sections come after a body of material and summarize the information for your readers. Reviews help readers absorb details while keeping track of the big picture.
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