1. GIS (Geographical Information System)
Dr. Kodge B. G.
SVITM, Udgir, Dist. Latur (MS)

2. What is GIS? A technology An information handling strategy
hardware & software tools
An information handling strategy
The objective: to improve overall decision making

3. GIS: a formal definition
“A system for capturing, storing, checking, integrating, manipulating, analysing and displaying data which are spatially referenced to the Earth. This is normally considered to involve a spatially referenced computer database and appropriate applications software”.

4. GIS: historical background
This technology has developed from:
Digital cartography and CAD
Data Base Management Systems 1 2 3
ATTRIB ID
X,Y
CAD System
Data Base Management System
GIS: historical background
GIS has developed from two independent areas: digital cartography and databases. These developments are closely related to the enormous growth in power, and the corresponding reduction in the cost of computer technology, since the late 1960’s.
Digital cartography
The desire to use computers to replace manual cartographic processes, particularly for the more tedious tasks, was a focus in the 1970’s.
Developments in digital cartography often resulted from developments in the larger Computer Aided Design (CAD) field.
At the same time the 1960’s quantitative revolution in Geography encouraged the development of computer programs that could undertake map analysis operations that would be difficult or too time-consuming to undertake by hand.
Database links
The use of Data Base Management Systems (DBMS) is very important to the current concept of GIS which involves the integrating of spatial and non-spatial data. The development of relational DBMS was particularly significant with examples such as Oracle being widely used today.

5. Cross-disciplinary nature of GIS
Digital
Mapping
Computer
Aided
Design
Photo-
grammetry
GIS
Databases
Surveying
Remote
Sensing
Cross-disciplinary nature of GIS

6. G I S GIS components Spatial data Computer hardware / software tools
The key to establishing this type of technology within an information framework for the purposes of decision making is INTEGRATION: the linking together of technology, data and a decision making strategy.
What GIS is all about today is the bringing together of spatial analysis techniques and digital spatial data combined with computer technology.
But for many, GIS is much more than a computer database and a set of tools: it is also a philosophy for information management. Often GIS can form the core of the information management within an organisation.
There are of course other definitions too. GIS is sometimes referred to as the tool whilst the user may be the Spatial Information Scientist! In recent times the whole subject area has also been referred to as Geographic Information Management (GIM) or even Geomatics
Each of these components will now be examined in further details.
1. Data
2. Software & hardware tools
3. GIS data manipulation & analysis
Computer hardware / software tools
Specific applications / decision making objectives

7. What makes data spatial?
Grid co-ordinate
Placename
Latitude / Longitude
Postcode
What makes data spatial?
Spatial data has particular characteristics. These can be described in terms of: shape, place and relationship to other spatial data (or geometry, location, and topology - these terms will be explored in lecture 2). It is also necessary to model real world data (such as a road or building) in terms of a geographical representation. For example, a road could be represented as a line and the building perhaps as a small box on a map. These features (line, box) are in fact models of the actual real world features. Sometimes these models are described as objects or entities too. Again this will be discussed in lecture 2.
Another important aspect of spatial data is that it often contains attribute information. That implies that a description of the feature (the road) is held in some form. The description might be the name or the type of road (A, B, Motorway). This information might be held in a database record or simply written or depicted on a map.
Finally spatial data by its very nature implies that relationships are also recorded. When we look at map data, we automatically interpret the relative locations of the spatial data. Computers require more explicit descriptions.
Spatial data thus refers to information that is associated with a location or place. It may be recorded on a map, held as records in a database or even be represented as a photograph. Remember that Geography is, in fact, the study of spatial information and that we are surrounded by geography. You will also discover that most information is either spatial or has a spatial component.
Description
Distance & bearing

8. Characteristics of spatial data
Geometry
The shape of a building or county
The course of a river, the route of a road
The shape of the landscape, relief

9. Characteristics of spatial data
Topology
Connected to
Within
Adjacent to
North of . . .

12. Spatial Data: examples
Socio-economic data
Regional health data
Consumer / lifestyle profiles
Geodemographics
Environmental data
Topographic data
Thematic data, soils, geology
Spatial data examples
Socio-economic data is widely available, often from national and local government, and is usually the product of population surveys and censuses. This data is also used by a number of commercial vendors who combine census information with other datasets to produce neighbourhood profiles classifying particular areas for marketing purposes. This ability to recognise particular markets based on geographical datasets is known as Geodemographics and is one of the fastest growth areas within GIS.
Environmental Data
The collection and analysis of information about the environment was one of the driving forces behind the development of GIS and continues to be an important application area. Environmental data sets often tend to be large and require considerable management.
Environmental data often includes boundaries between vegetation types, for example, which are fuzzy i.e. they are not defined by a simple line. Conversely, socio-economic data is usually related to administrative boundaries, which are sharp if artificial.

13. Spatial data storage Vector model Raster model as geometric objects:
points, lines, polygons
Spatial data storage
It is easy for us to recognise by eye the shape and form of objects or features such as those you have just examined (Burrough 1998). Computers require much more information and precision and, in fact, instructions on how to store such information.
Spatial features or entities and their attributes are stored in computers using a number of spatial data models. It is important to understand the characteristics of them since the data model employed has considerable influence on the functionality of the GIS.
The basic approaches are :
• The Raster model
• The Vector model
The Raster data model is the simpler of the two and is based on the division of reality into a regular grid of identically shaped cells.
The Vector data model is similar in its operation to the ‘join the dot’ books we all used as children. An object’s shape is represented by dots which are located where the shape of the object changes. The dots are joined by straight lines. In the vector data model the dots are known as vertices
as image files
composed of grid-cells
(pixels)

14. Date type File type Integer Real Byte ASCII Binary Packed Binary
or depends of the DBMS package…

15. Vector data model
advantage of the vector data format: allows precise representation of points, boundaries, and linear features.
useful for analysis tasks that require accurate positioning,
for defining spatial relationship (ie the connectivity and adjacency) between coverage features (topology), important for such purposes as network analysis (for example to find an optimal path between two nodes in a complex transport network)
main disadvantage of vector data is that the boundaries of the resulting map polygons are discrete (enclosed by well-defined boundary lines), whereas in reality the map polygons may represent continuous gradation or gradual change, as in soil maps.

16. Raster data model good for representing indistinct boundaries
thematic information on soil types, soil moisture, vegetation, ground temperatures
as reconnaissance satellites and aerial surveys use raster-based scanners, the information (ie scanned images) can be directly incorporated into GIS
the higher the grid resolution, the larger the data file is going to be

17. Modelling the real world
... x y
Modelling the real world
Thus all features can be coded in a digital form that the computer (and GIS) can understand. The slide shows the real world features as we see them, followed by a map representation. The map is then coded into two data models.
Firstly (above) the Vector representation.
Secondly (below) the Raster data model.
Finally these two models when applied will be translated into a series of numbers or codes that the computer can understand.
Further examples of these two data models can be found in both Burroughs & McDonnell and also Heywood et al.

18. Vector data
Land use parcels

19. Raster data

20. Manipulation and analysis
What would happen if . . .
A chemical leaked into a river?
Where does . . .
The Green Belt exist in relation to the City?
Has . . .
Population changed over the last ten years?
Is there a spatial pattern related to . . .
Car ownership in our area?
Manipulation and analysis
To be of any value a GIS must perform a wide range of data manipulation and analysis functions. Thus all good GIS systems should be able to answer the types of questions listed above. The only limitations would be the availability of data and the functions of the specific software package.
In addition how each GIS is used to carry out such analysis will vary. In this course you will be using MapInfo - a Desk top GIS. You will carry out many of these type of questions in terms of MapInfo’s functionality. At the end of the day, however, it will be your interpretation of how the software functions which will determine the type of analysis that can be achieved.
Project planning will be an important issue to consider if you decide to carry out further analysis of your own data after completion of this course.

21. Databases & GIS
Spatial data
At a simple level a GIS may just form the graphical interface to a database
The majority of GIS applications follow this example
MapInfo
Linked database table
SQL Query Manager

22. Geo-relational Data Models
Linked tables based on the relational model, but storing geographical information such as:
Geometry
Topology
Attributes

23. GIS Data Quality
The data quality refers to ‘fitness for use’ of data for intended applications.
Scope of geo-data quality (reliable, projected, relevant and current/updated).
Accuracy (roundup, inadequate survey )
Precision (exact single/double float points)
Errors
Uncertainty (lack of data confidence)

24. Sources of Errors in GIS
Sources Inherent Operational
Map Projection Y N
Map Scale Y N
Field survey measurements Y Y
Image analysis Y Y
Sampling design Y Y
Digitizing Y Y
Raster to vector Y N
Overlay analysis Y N
Attribute data input Y Y

25. GIS & Analysis
In the context of GIS, analysis is... “Deriving new information from existing data”
It is also the manipulation of data to solve a problem
e.g. identify all areas within 500m of a lake
Increasing use is made of the analytical capabilities of GIS, BUT
many GIS projects only use the software to store and manage
geographical data
Yet analysis often relies on many simple basic GIS techniques

26. Simple Query
The identification of objects and their attributes either by location or attribute query.

28. Buffering Creation of an area of interest around an object
proximity analysis and environmental impact assessment.

29. Overlays
Layer: A thematic plane of GIS features containing geographically and logically related data
Overlaying involves superimposing two or more map layers to produce a new map layer.
Example: a new genetically engineered variety of wheat grows well in dry environments, with long growing seasons and alkaline soils. Given the availability of data on the length of the growing season, moisture regime and soil alkalinity, where is the best place to plant the wheat?
overlaying (superimposing) several maps showing (separately) water-budget, growing season length, soil pH, sodium content, and so on. The GIS analysis can establish the locations where all the favorable soil conditions coincide, as the places where the wheat will grow best.

32. Country boundary

33. Plus district boundary

34. Plus major rivers

35. Plus major roads

36. Plus railway lines

37. Plus domestic air routes

38. Plus district towns

39. More functions? Unioning Distance measuring 3D modeling
Vertical and horizontal scalability
Web based operation
Data center based operation
More ……

40. The benefits of GIS include:
Better information management
Higher quality analysis
Ability to carry out “what if?” scenarios
Improve project efficiency
The benefits of GIS include:
Use of GIS software and spatial data should lead to better information management; higher quality analysis; the ability to carry out ‘what if . . ?’ scenarios and improve project efficiency.
Remember, however, that many of these achievements are dependent on:
data availability
the ease of use of the GIS software
the understanding of the problem to be solved
the time available
the amount of funding for the project in hand

41. GIS Applications Facilities management Marketing and retailing
Environmental
Transport/vehicle routing
Health
Insurance
and many more . . .
GIS Applications
Facilities management: Utilities such as electricity, gas, water and cable communication companies all use GIS systems to store, retrieve and analyse their plant and materials. Areas such as customer responses, demand forecasting, fault analysis, network assessment analysis, site planning, strategic planning and market analysis can be generated by the GIS.
Marketing and retailing: these applications tend towards targeting customers and identifying potential markets for customers. The extensive datasets generated from the use of loyalty cards can also be used in conjunction with GIS. Other applications may include: media planning, territory allocation and prospect analysis.
Environmental: Forestry management, impact analysis, resource management, coastal zone mapping, geophysical & geotechnical surveys.
Transport/vehicle routing: this is an example of ‘real-time’ GIS and is used particularly by vehicle routing companies and the emergency services who need to know where there vehicles are located at any given time. Vehicle routing can also be assessed in terms of least cost or efficiency. In addition GIS may also be used for; dispatch, scheduling, franchise planning as well as route planning.
Health: Disease mapping as well as epidemiology, facility planning, provider & purchaser planning, expenditure monitoring and patient analysis can all be carried out using GIS.
Insurance: risk distribution analysis, catastrophe planning, customer service analysis, hazard & prediction analysis and underwriting

42. Finding the best route to evacuate people during cyclone – A GIS application

43. Important features of cyclone in Bangladesh
In last 30 years, nearly 9,00,000 people died due to disastrous cyclones in Bangladesh
Six out of nine depressions formed in the Bay of Bengal normally cross the coastal belt of Bangladesh almost every year
Thousands of people lose lives due to cyclones
Cyclone preparedness can reduce the loss of life and property

44. LULC of India

45. LULC of Latur district 2004-05

46. LULC of Latur district 2005-06

47. LULC of Latur district 2006-07

48. LULC of Latur district 2007-08

49. LULC of Latur district 2008-09

50. LULC of Latur district 2009-10

51. Water scarcity regions

52. Education zone (Udgir)

53. Village performance map

54. Digital Terrain Model DEM, DSM and DTM.
A digital terrain model is a topographic model of the bare earth – terrain relief - that can be manipulated by computer programs. The data files contain the spatial elevation data of the terrain in a digital format which usually presented as a rectangular grid.

55. DTM of Latur district

56. Elevation Map

57. 3D Surface Modeling

58. 3D Surface Modeling

59. Route elevation (Latur-Udgir)

60. TIN

61. DTM Applications Surveying & Mapping Hydrological & Geomorphological
Geoscientific
Engineering
Natural Resource Management
Military
National developments

62. GIS Implementation & Project Management
GIS Project Planning
GIS software evaluation and selection
Hardware consideration and acquisition
GIS Database design methodologies
Software Engineering in GIS
Software design methodologies
System Analysis & User Requirements

63. GIS Issues and Prospects
GIS Implementation (data, ownership, misusing, privacy, updating, documentation)
Technical issues (Evaluation, speed, memory and Management)
Integration with other applications.
Issues pertaining to people.

64. The Trend of GIS Development
Enterprise computing and GIS
Spatial data warehouses
Interoperability and Open GIS
National spatial data Infrastructure
Internet and its impact on GIS

65. Frontiers of GIS Research
Spatial data acquisition & Integration
Distributed computing
Extensions to Geographic representations
Scale
Spatial analysis in GIS environment
Future of spatial information
GIS and Society
Education and training.

66. GIS Information jump Stations
Where to start search
GIS Information jump Stations
(ESRI portal)
GeoCommunity (
(Minnesota Univ.)
(Nebraska linkon)

67. Pointers to Info. Resources
NASA EOS (
USGS-NIMA (egsc.usgs.gov/nimamaps)
NOAA (
USGS-SRTM (
OGISC (
NRSC-Bhuvan (
SOI (
NATMO (

68. Pointers to Data Resources
ESRI data online (
Alexandria project (
CIESIN (
ARKANSAS CAST (
GIS data depot (
DIVA-GIS (
Microsoft Terra server (
SRTM DEM (

69. Pointers to Product Info.
Computer manufacturer’s sites
ERDAS Inc. (
ESRI (
Intergraph (
PCI Geomatics (
MapInfo (pbinsight.com/welcome/mapinfo)
Oracle Corp. (
Geoeye (

70. Internet based GIS applications
Google earth (
NASA world wind-worldwind.arc.nasa.gov
ARG GIS earth explorer (maps.esri.com)
NASA EOS (svs.gsfc.nasa.gov)
Indian ATLAS (atlas.gisserver.nic.in)
DST-NRDMS-NSDI (
VISA card ATM Locator-visa.via.infonow.net

71. GIS & RS Journals American Cartographer Cartography and GIS
IEEE T on Computers & Geosciences
Geometica
Int. Journal of Remote Sensing
Transactions in GIS
Int. journal of GIS
Journal of Remote Sensing of Envi.

72. Thanks to all…